Overview

Lesson Procedure

65-70 minutes of class time across 5 phases.

1. Warm-Up5-10 minutes
2. Direct Instruction20 minutes
3. Guided Practice15 minutes
4. Independent Practice15 minutes
5. Closure10 minutes

1. Warm-Up5-10 minutes

   Warm-Up Prompt

   "Before a big test or game, have you ever lost your appetite or felt your stomach 'turn over'? Write one sentence about what you think is happening inside you. Then read this sentence, written in 1915: 'the movements of almost the entire alimentary canal are wholly stopped during great excitement.' What would a scientist have had to do to find that out?"

   Take a few answers to the second question. Students usually suggest watching the inside of a living body somehow, and comparing calm and excited moments. Point out that the 1915 sentence packs a claim into long words (alimentary canal, wholly), and that a reader cannot judge it without knowing how it was found out. Today's goal is the one RST.9-10.10 sets for the end of grade 10: reading a science text of this difficulty on your own and understanding it well enough to explain and judge it. Students learn four passes, watch them modeled, try them with a partner, and then use them alone.

2. Direct Instruction20 minutes

   Part 1: Four passes. Show Diagram 1 and hand out the pass card. Question: what the text is trying to find out, and what kind of text it is (a research report in the writer's own voice, a laboratory record, a textbook written for general readers). Method: what was changed or compared, what was observed or measured, and whether the work is the writer's own or reported from others. Decode: technical terms, worked out from word parts and nearby clues, and numbers, each with its unit and its comparison. Verdict: the conclusion in one sentence, the evidence that carries it, and how certain the writer sounds. The table shows the supports students have for each text.

   Supports for each text (Yes = given). Every text has fewer supports than the one before it.

   Support	Source 1 (modeled)	Source 2 (pairs)	Source 3 (alone)	Source 4 (homework)
   Teacher models aloud	Yes	No	No	No
   Term list	Yes	No	No	No
   Finished method map	Yes	No	No	No
   Partner	No	Yes	No	No
   Chart of the data (Diagram 2)	No	Yes	No	No
   Prompts for each pass	Yes	Yes	No	No
   Background note	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
   Pass card with names only	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
   Supports given	6 of 8	5 of 8	2 of 8	0 of 8

   Part 2: The modeled text. Read the background note aloud: Walter B. Cannon (1871-1945) taught physiology, the science of how the body works, at Harvard Medical School. As a medical student in the late 1890s he was one of the first to use the newly discovered X-rays to watch digestion in living animals: the animals ate food mixed with a bismuth salt, which shows up on an X-ray screen. His 1915 book collects his laboratory's research on what happens inside the body during pain, fear and anger. Source 1 comes from chapter I, in a section on the movements of the stomach and intestines; the section before it shows that strong emotions stop the flow of digestive juices. Term list: secretory (producing a fluid, such as a digestive juice), alimentary canal (the whole food passage, from the mouth through the stomach and intestines), Röntgen rays (X-rays, named for Wilhelm Röntgen, who discovered them in 1895), restive (restless and resisting control), gastric (of the stomach), peristaltic waves (rings of muscle contraction that travel along the stomach or intestine and push the food on), abolition (complete stopping), inhibited (held back). Think aloud through one pass at a time, then show the finished method map.

   1Again just as the secretory activities of the stomach are unfavorably influenced by strong emotions, so also are the movements of the stomach; and, indeed, the movements of almost the entire alimentary canal are wholly stopped during great excitement. In my earliest observations on the movements of the stomach I had difficulty because in some animals the waves of contraction were perfectly evident, while in others there was no sign of activity. Several weeks passed before I discovered that this difference was associated with a difference of sex. In order to be observed with Röntgen rays the animals were restrained in a holder. Although the holder was comfortable, the male cats, particularly the young males, were restive and excited on being fastened to it, and under these circumstances gastric peristaltic waves were absent; the female cats, especially if elderly, usually submitted with calmness to the restraint, and in them the waves had their normal occurrence. Once a female with kittens turned from her state of quiet contentment to one of apparent restless anxiety. The movements of the stomach immediately stopped, the gastric wall became wholly relaxed, and only after the animal had been petted and began to purr did the moving waves start again on their course. By covering the cat’s mouth and nose with the fingers until a slight distress of breathing is produced, the stomach contractions can be stopped at will. In the cat, therefore, any sign of rage or fear, such as was seen in dogs by Le Conte and by Bickel and Sasaki, was accompanied by a total abolition of the movements of the stomach. Even indications of slight anxiety may be attended by complete absence of the churning waves. In a vigorous young male cat I have watched the stomach for more than an hour by means of the Röntgen rays, and during that time not the slightest beginning of peristaltic activity appeared; yet the only visible indication of excitement in the animal was a continued quick twitching of the tail to and fro. What is true of the cat I have found true also of the rabbit, dog and guinea-pig—very mild emotional disturbances are attended by abolition of peristalsis. The observations on the rabbit have been confirmed by Auer, who found that the handling of the animal incidental to fastening it gently to a holder stopped gastric peristalsis for a variable length of time. And if the animal was startled for any reason, or struggled excitedly, peristalsis was again abolished. The observations on the dog also have been confirmed; Lommel found that small dogs in strange surroundings might have no contractions of the stomach for two or three hours. And whenever the animals showed any indications of being uncomfortable or distressed, the contractions were inhibited and the discharge of contents from the stomach checked.

   2Like the peristaltic waves in the stomach, the peristalsis and the kneading movements (segmentation) in the small intestine, and the reversed peristalsis in the large intestine all cease whenever the observed animal shows signs of emotional excitement.

   • Question: before reading closely

     What is Source 1 trying to find out, and what kind of text is it?

     Result: The question is whether strong emotion stops the movements of the stomach and intestines. It is a research report: Cannon writes in the first person ("In my earliest observations"), describes his own experiments and adds results from other laboratories, and the source line shows it is a 1915 book that sums up years of work.

   • Method: what was compared and measured

     Trace the method in paragraph 1.

     Result: Cats were held in a holder and watched with X-rays. What was observed was whether the "peristaltic waves" of the stomach appeared. The comparison was between calm and excited animals, and then within one animal: the mother cat became anxious, the waves stopped, and they started again once she was petted and purred. Later sentences add other animals and other researchers (Auer, Lommel).

   • Decode: four terms from their clues

     Work out "gastric," "peristaltic waves," "abolition" and "Röntgen rays" in paragraph 1.

     Result: "Gastric" goes with "the gastric wall" and "the stomach," so it means of the stomach. "Peristaltic waves" are renamed "the churning waves" and "waves of contraction," so they are squeezing motions that travel along the stomach. "Abolition" pairs with "complete absence," so it means total stopping. "Röntgen rays" are what Cannon watched the stomach "by means of": X-rays.

   • Verdict: a puzzle the method solved

     Why did some cats show stomach waves and others none, and how does Cannon rule out his first explanation?

     Result: At first the difference seemed to go with sex: the waves were absent in young males and present in calm, older females. But the young males were also "restive and excited" in the holder. The mother cat settles it: the same animal lost its waves when it became anxious and got them back when calmed, so excitement, not sex, made the difference.

   • Verdict: how strong is the claim?

     State the conclusion of Source 1 and judge the evidence and the wording.

     Result: Conclusion: in cats, rabbits, dogs and guinea-pigs, even mild excitement stops the stomach's churning, and paragraph 2 extends this to the intestines. The evidence is repeated direct observation plus confirmation by two other researchers. The wording is strong ("total abolition") but careful in places: "almost the entire alimentary canal" and "may be attended." The report is about animals; it does not show the same thing in people.

   Finished method map for Source 1 (the last support students get)

   Pass	What the teacher writes on the board
   Changed or compared	Calm animals and excited animals; one cat before and after she became anxious
   Observed	Whether peristaltic waves appeared in the stomach on the X-ray screen
   Whose work	Cannon's own (cats, rabbits, dogs, guinea-pigs); confirmed by Auer (rabbits) and Lommel (dogs)
   Result	Signs of fear, anger or even slight anxiety went with no stomach waves

   Teacher tip. Let students watch you get the first explanation wrong: write "sex difference?" on the board after the third sentence, then cross it out when you reach the mother cat. Reading a method is often a matter of catching the moment when a writer rules out an explanation.

3. Guided Practice15 minutes

   Give pairs the pass card with prompts and this background note, but no term list: This is the opening of chapter V of Cannon's book, followed by the end of the same section. Glycogen is a starch-like fuel stored in the liver. "Adrenin" is Cannon's name for the hormone made by the adrenal glands, known today as adrenaline or epinephrine. Pairs work through the passes before asking for help, and they build a small table of the results. When they have it, show Diagram 2 so they can check it.

   1Sugar is the form in which carbohydrate material is transported in organisms; starch is the storage form. In the bodies of animals that have been well fed the liver contains an abundance of glycogen or “animal starch,” which may be called upon in times of need. At such times the glycogen is changed, and set free in the blood as sugar. Ordinarily there is a small percentage of sugar in the blood—from 0.06 to 0.1 per cent. When only this small amount is present the kidneys are capable of preventing its escape in any noteworthy amount. If the percentage rises to the neighborhood of 0.2-0.3 per cent, however, the sugar passes the obstacle set up by the kidneys, and is readily demonstrable in the urine by ordinary tests. The condition of “glycosuria,” therefore, may properly be considered, in certain circumstances, as evidence of increased sugar in the blood. The injection of adrenin can liberate sugar from the liver to such an extent that glycosuria results. Does the adrenal secretion discharged in pain and strong emotional excitement play a rôle in producing glycosuria under such conditions?

   [...]

   2The results noted in these lower animals have been confirmed in human beings. One of my former students, W. G. Smillie, found that four of nine medical students, all normally without sugar in their urine, had glycosuria after a hard examination, and only one of the nine had glycosuria after an easier examination. The tests, which were positive with Fehling’s solution, Nylander’s reagent, and also with phenyl-hydrazine, were made on the first urine passed after the examination. Furthermore, C. H. Fiske and I examined the urine of twenty-five members of the Harvard University football squad immediately after the final and most exciting contest of the season of 1913, and found sugar in twelve cases. Five of these positive cases were among substitutes not called upon to enter the game. The only excited spectator of the Harvard victory whose urine was examined also had a marked glycosuria, which on the following day had disappeared.

   3Other tests made on students before and after important scholastic examinations have been published by Folin, Denis and Smillie. Of thirty-four second-year medical students tested, one had sugar before the examination as well as afterwards. Of the remaining thirty-three, six, or 18 per cent, had small but unmistakable traces of sugar in the urine passed directly following the ordeal. A similar study was made on second-year students at a women’s college. Of thirty-six students who had no sugar in the urine on the day before, six, or 17 per cent, eliminated sugar with the urine passed immediately after the examination.

   4From the foregoing results it is reasonable to conclude that just as in the cat, dog, and rabbit, so also in man, emotional excitement produces temporary increase of blood sugar.

   1. Question. Prompt: which sentence states the question of the chapter? Teacher note: the last sentence of paragraph 1, "Does the adrenal secretion discharged in pain and strong emotional excitement play a rôle in producing glycosuria under such conditions?" The rest of paragraph 1 is the background a reader needs to understand the question.
   2. Method. Prompt: what was tested, in whom, and when? Whose work is each result? Teacher note: urine was tested for sugar right after a stressful event: medical students after a hard and after an easier examination (Smillie, Cannon's former student), football players after the final game (Cannon and Fiske), and two groups of students in a later study by Folin, Denis and Smillie. The easier examination and the tests "on the day before" are the comparisons.
   3. Decode. Prompt: work out "glycosuria" and turn every count into a percentage. Teacher note: the text defines glycosuria indirectly (sugar that passes the kidneys "is readily demonstrable in the urine"), and the word parts glyc- (sugar) and -uria (urine) confirm it. The counts: 4 of 9 is 44%, 1 of 9 is 11%, 12 of 25 is 48%, and the text itself gives 6 of 33 as 18% and 6 of 36 as 17%.
   4. Verdict. Prompt: what does Cannon conclude, and what makes the football result stronger evidence than it first looks? Teacher note: he concludes that "emotional excitement produces temporary increase of blood sugar" in people as in animals. Five of the twelve players with sugar were substitutes who never played, so hard exercise cannot explain all of the results; excitement can. His wording is measured: "it is reasonable to conclude."

   Close with one question for the class: why does Cannon test urine when the question is about the blood? (Paragraph 1 explains that sugar appears in the urine only when the blood level is high, so a urine test shows high blood sugar but misses small rises.) Tell students that the next text comes with a background note and the pass names only.

4. Independent Practice15 minutes

   Each student reads alone, with the pass-name card and no prompts, term list or partner. Background note: This passage comes from volume nine of the sixteen-volume Popular Science Library, printed in 1922. It ends a chapter on the nerves that control the heart, the blood vessels and the organs of digestion. Students write one line for each pass in the margin and circle every term they worked out. Collect the Verdict lines: they show who can already read a text of this kind alone. The quiz uses this passage.

   1[...] It has been necessary to invent a name for substances which act as chemical regulators, because, without such a name, talking about them becomes too cumbersome. The name that has been adopted is hormone, from a Greek word meaning to arouse or to stimulate, referring to the ability these substances have of acting upon living cells. [...] One of the hormones is interesting in connection with the relation of emotions to smooth muscle and gland activity. This is a secretion manufactured by a pair of small glands located in the abdomen near the kidneys. They are known as the adrenal bodies. These glands secrete a substance to which has been given the name of adrenalin, which has been shown to be a very efficient chemical excitant to a number of bodily processes. We are particularly interested here in a property it has of arousing smooth muscles and glands in precisely the same way as they are aroused in connection with the disagreeable emotions, such as fright or anger. For example the injection of a little of this adrenalin into the veins of a person or animal will cause his heart beat to be quickened, the blood flow into the brain and the muscles to be increased at the expense of the flow through the skin and abdominal organs, and the other effects to occur that were described above as accompanying these emotions. These facts about the effects of adrenalin had been known for some time before it was realized that they fit in with the reaction by which the body prepares itself to operate efficiently in time of stress. Now we have learned to look upon adrenalin as the “emergency hormone,” meaning that it is a chemical substance which does the same things to the body that are done through the emotions in time of emergency. We look upon this as a reenforcement of the nervous action, indicating the efficiency with which the fitting of the body for time of stress works out. The adrenal bodies are themselves glands and are acted upon like other glands through the part of the nervous system that we have just been describing. In time of emergency a stream of nervous discharges pours into them; they secrete an abundant supply of adrenalin which passes out into the blood and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, exerting its special functions wherever it comes. There is no doubt that the ability of the body to care for itself in time of need is helped by the outpouring of adrenalin. In one respect, however, this arrangement does not work out perfectly. This is because chemical substances that are poured out into the blood cannot be gotten rid of instantly, and are likely to linger for a shorter or longer time after the actual emergency subsides, so the bodily effects persist for a time after the occasion for them has disappeared. We are all familiar with the fact, for example, that the heart goes on thumping for a long time after a sudden shock. It may not have occurred to us to wonder what kept it going at that rate after the immediate disturbance was passed, but we now see that it must do so until the adrenalin which was poured out in connection with the shock has been gotten rid of, which is a more or less gradual process.

5. Closure10 minutes

   Exit ticket: (1) Which pass did Source 3 need most, and where? Copy the words. (2) Martin's textbook and Cannon's reports explain some of the same events. Name one thing a reader learns from a research report that a textbook explanation usually leaves out.

   Teacher note on the science and the sources. The passages are quoted exactly as printed in 1915 and 1922, with footnote numbers left out. The main findings hold up. "Adrenin" and "adrenalin" are older names for epinephrine, the hormone of the inner part of the adrenal glands, and the pattern Cannon studied is now called the fight-or-flight response (later in this book he writes of "the necessities of fighting or flight"). Fear and anger do slow digestion, stress hormones do release sugar from the glycogen stored in the liver, and sudden stress does make blood clot faster. Three points need a note. First, Cannon gives blood sugar as a percentage: 0.1 per cent means 0.1 gram in 100 milliliters of blood, or 100 mg/dL in today's units, and the kidneys usually begin to let sugar through at about 180 mg/dL, a little below his 0.2-0.3 per cent. Second, adrenaline is now known to leave the blood within a few minutes; discuss this with students after they have answered Quiz Question 19, which asks them to test Martin's account of the pounding heart. Third, the experiments used cats, dogs and rabbits, some of them without anesthesia, as in the cat whose breathing Cannon briefly blocked. Research animals today are protected by laws and review committees that did not exist in 1915, and students may want to discuss this. The texts contain no offensive language; "man" is used for all people, as was usual then.

   For homework: students read the laboratory record below on their own, with no card and no background note beyond its source line.

   1In the foregoing chapter evidence was presented that the intravenous injection of minute amounts of adrenin hastens the clotting of blood. The amounts used did not vary much above or below the amounts discharged by the adrenal glands after brief stimulation of the splanchnic nerves, as found by H. Osgood in the Harvard Laboratory, and may therefore be regarded as physiological. Since injected adrenin is capable of shortening the coagulation time, may not the increased secretion of the adrenals likewise have that effect? The answer to this question was the object of an investigation by W. L. Mendenhall and myself.

   [...]

   2That splanchnic stimulation accelerates the clotting of blood, and that the effects vary in different animals, are facts illustrated in the following cases:

   3Oct. 25.—A cat was etherized and maintained in uniform ether anesthesia. After forty minutes of preliminary observation the left splanchnic nerves were stimulated in the abdomen. Following are the figures which show the effects on the coagulation time:

   43.00—4 minutes
   .07—5.5 “
   .14—4 “
   .32—4.5 “
   .39 to .40 Stimulation of left splanchnic.
   .42—5 minutes
   .49—5 “
   .56—2 “
   4.00—1 “
   .03—2.5 “
   .07—2.5 “
   .11—3 “
   .16—2 “
   .20—1.5 “
   .23—4 “
   .29—5.5 “
   .40—5.5 “
   .50—5 “

   5In this instance at least ten minutes elapsed between the end of stimulation and the beginning of faster clotting. The period of faster clotting, however, lasted for about a half-hour, during which the coagulation time averaged 2.1 minutes, only forty-three per cent of the previous average of 4.8 minutes. It is noteworthy that the curve (see Fig. 29), while lower, shows oscillations not unlike those which follow injection of adrenin (see p. 155).

Differentiation Strategies

Assessment Guidance

1. Question 1 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Question: which question does Source 3 mainly answer?

   AWhat the adrenal glands' hormone does to the body in an emergency BHow Cannon found out that fear stops the movements of a cat's stomach CHow doctors in 1922 measured the amount of adrenalin carried in the blood DWhich kinds of food raise the amount of sugar that the blood carries

2. Question 2 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Question: what kind of science text is Source 3?

   AA research report in which the writer describes experiments he carried out BA laboratory record of times and measurements from one experiment CAn explanation for general readers of what physiologists had learned DA set of numbered instructions for a school laboratory exercise

3. Question 3 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Why, according to Martin, did the substances need a name of their own?

   AScientists could not agree on what the substances did BTalking about them without one word was too awkward CThe Greek word had been used earlier for something else DEach gland needed its own name so as not to be confused

4. Question 4 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Decode: using the explanation Martin gives, what is a hormone?

   AA gland located in the abdomen near the kidneys BA nerve signal that travels out to the smooth muscles CA fluid that digests food in the stomach DA chemical regulator that stirs living cells to act

5. Question 5 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   The word adrenal is built from two Latin parts, ad- and renalis. Which detail in Source 3 explains why the glands have this name?

   A"a pair of small glands located in the abdomen near the kidneys" B"a very efficient chemical excitant to a number of bodily processes" C"carried by the blood to all parts of the body" D"acted upon like other glands through the part of the nervous system"

6. Question 6 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Martin calls adrenalin "a very efficient chemical excitant to a number of bodily processes." What does excitant mean here?

   AA substance that calms the body down after a sudden fright BA substance that breaks food down into sugar CA substance that sets processes going or speeds them up DA substance that the body removes very quickly

7. Question 7 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   According to Source 3, what happens to the blood flow after an injection of adrenalin?

   AIt rises everywhere in the body at once BIt rises in the brain and muscles and falls in the skin and abdominal organs CIt falls in the brain and muscles and rises in the skin and abdominal organs DIt stops in the abdominal organs until the emergency is over

8. Question 8 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   "These facts about the effects of adrenalin had been known for some time before it was realized that they fit in with the reaction by which the body prepares itself to operate efficiently in time of stress." What was new, according to this sentence?

   AThe discovery that the adrenal glands exist at all BThe first experiments injecting adrenalin into the veins CThe finding that adrenalin quickens the heart beat DThe idea that the known effects serve a purpose in emergencies

9. Question 9 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   What does Martin mean by calling adrenalin the "emergency hormone"?

   AIt does to the body what the emotions of an emergency do BIt is released only when a person has been badly injured CIt was first discovered during an emergency in a hospital DIt is the first hormone the body makes after birth

10. Question 10 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    "We look upon this as a reenforcement of the nervous action." What relationship between the nerves and the hormone does this describe?

    AThe hormone takes over the nerves' work whenever they become tired BThe hormone blocks the nerves so that the body can stay calm and still CThe hormone strengthens the effects the nerves are already producing DThe hormone repairs nerves that were damaged by a shock

11. Question 11 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Martin writes that the adrenal bodies are acted upon "through the part of the nervous system that we have just been describing." What does this phrase tell a reader about Source 3?

    AIt follows an earlier section that explained the nerves controlling glands and smooth muscles BIt comes just before a chapter in which Martin will describe the nervous system for the first time CIt shows that the adrenal bodies are a part of the nervous system rather than glands of their own DIt refers the reader back to Cannon's X-ray experiments on the nerves and movements of the stomach

12. Question 12 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    What drawback of the emergency arrangement does Martin describe?

    AThe glands can run out of adrenalin in a long emergency BThe effects last after the danger has passed, because the hormone lingers CThe hormone cannot reach the brain, so clear thinking gets no help at all DThe nerves react far too slowly to protect the body during a sudden shock

13. Question 13 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Verdict: which phrase in Source 3 presents a claim as settled, with no evidence given in the passage?

    A"For example" B"In one respect, however" C"It may not have occurred to us" D"There is no doubt that"

14. Question 14 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Which grade 10 reader shows the kind of reading RST.9-10.10 describes?

    AAna reads a new thyroid article alone, then explains its question, terms and whether its evidence holds BBen reads the same article aloud with a tutor, who stops after each sentence to explain what it means CCal copies every bold term and its definition from the article into a vocabulary list, then stops DDee reads only the summary box and the captions, because the paragraphs look too long to her

15. Question 15 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Source 1 reports that excitement stops the stomach's movements. How does Source 3 fit with that finding?

    AIt contradicts Source 1 by saying adrenalin speeds up digestion BIt fits Source 1: blood is sent away from the abdominal organs toward the muscles CIt has nothing to do with Source 1, because it is only about the heart beat DIt proves Source 1 wrong about cats, since Martin studied people instead of animals

16. Question 16 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Source 2 says that "the injection of adrenin can liberate sugar from the liver." What does a reader gain by reading Source 2 alongside Source 3?

    AProof that Martin's textbook explanation of the heart beat is mistaken BA second name for the adrenal bodies that Martin's textbook never uses CAn effect of the hormone that the printed part of Source 3 does not name DEvidence that the kidneys, not the adrenal bodies, are what make adrenalin

17. Question 17 of 20 · Short Answer

    Decode: split this sentence into its steps and explain what "nervous discharges" means: "In time of emergency a stream of nervous discharges pours into them; they secrete an abundant supply of adrenalin which passes out into the blood and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, exerting its special functions wherever it comes."

    Show model answer

18. Question 18 of 20 · Short Answer

    Method: Source 3 reports no experiment of its own. Name the one kind of evidence it mentions for adrenalin's effects, and describe what a careful reader would want to know before accepting it.

    Show model answer

19. Question 19 of 20 · Short Answer

    Verdict: Martin writes that "we now see that it must do so until the adrenalin which was poured out in connection with the shock has been gotten rid of." What support does the passage give for this explanation of the pounding heart, and what other explanation could a careful reader keep open, using the passage itself?

    Show model answer

20. Question 20 of 20 · Short Answer

    Reading log: which of the four passes did Source 3 need most? Copy the words where you used it, explain what you did, and say what you understood afterward.

    Show model answer

These standards connect to RST.9-10.10: prerequisites to review first, parallel standards at the same level, and next steps that build on it.

Standard text: Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy. © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.