D2.Psy.14.9-12: Generating Research Questions from Different Psychological Sources
In plain English: D2.Psy.14.9-12 is the C3 Framework psychology indicator for grades 9-12 that asks students to use information from different psychological sources to generate research questions. Students read historical writing, a federal health page, a data set and observation notes, find the gaps and limits in each, and turn them into focused questions a study could answer.
Use information from different psychological sources to generate research questions.
C3 Framework for Social Studies (NCSS) · Dimension 2: Applying Disciplinary Concepts and Tools · Discipline: Psychology · Critical Thinking: Themes, Sources, and Evidence · Official standard
D2.Psy.14.9-12 asks students to use information from different psychological sources to generate research questions. A research question is focused enough for a study to answer, and psychologists find such questions by reading sources closely: a gap in one source, a limit its author admits, a conflict between two sources, a surprising result, or a combination of sources that suggests something new.
This lesson uses one topic, how faces show emotion, and five kinds of sources: Darwin's account of how he gathered evidence (1872), his printed queries to observers around the world, a current NIH page on American Sign Language, an invented photo study with invented data, and an invented parent's diary about a toddler. Students classify questions as descriptive, relational or causal, check them for focus, measurability, openness and ethics, and plan any study on paper only.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
Tell a topic from a research question and classify research questions as descriptive, relational or causal
Find a gap, limit, conflict, surprise or combination in a source and use it to write a research question
Use information from at least two different kinds of psychological sources to generate one question
Check a research question for focus, measurability, openness and ethics, and revise a weak one
Explain why reading different kinds of sources leads to better research questions
Prior Knowledge Required
Students should already be comfortable with:
Variables, samples and the difference between correlation and experiment D2.Psy.1.9-12
How theories and methods shape what a study can find D2.Psy.3.9-12
"Think of a time you could tell how a friend felt just from their face. What exactly did you see? Now write one question about faces and feelings that you would like a psychologist to answer."
Collect 6-8 student questions on the board without comment. Return to them at the end of Direct Instruction and ask which ones a study could actually answer as written. Most warm-up questions are topics ("Why do people smile?") rather than research questions; the lesson shows how sources help turn a topic into a question.
Direct Instruction20 minutes
What a research question is. A research question is a focused question that a study could answer by collecting or analyzing evidence. A topic ("facial expressions") is not yet a question, and a broad question ("Are emotions universal?") is too big for one study. Psychologists usually get their questions from sources: earlier studies, historical writing, official summaries, data sets and observations. Each kind of source shows something different, so reading several kinds leads to better questions.
Three kinds of research questions (examples written for this page)
Kind
What it asks
Example
Descriptive
What happens, how often, or how much
How many hours a week do high school students spend on homework?
Relational
Whether two variables go together
Is the number of hours of sleep related to reaction time in a driving game?
Causal
Whether changing one variable changes another
Does a 5-minute breathing exercise before a quiz lower reported test anxiety?
Five places to look for a question in a source. (1) A gap: something the source does not cover. (2) A limit: a small or narrow sample, or a method the author admits is weak. (3) A conflict: two sources that disagree. (4) A surprise: a result you did not expect. (5) A combination: two sources that together suggest something neither says alone. Then check the draft: is it focused (names the variables and the people), measurable, open (not already answered by the sources) and ethical and practical to study?
Read Source 1. Darwin, the naturalist, collected evidence about how people and animals show emotions; Source 1 is from the introduction to his 1872 book. He lists the kinds of sources he used and the errors he worried about. Teacher note: the omitted second source describes patients in an asylum in 19th-century terms that are now outdated; the page leaves it out.
1The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence. [...]
2In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain, independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell remarks, “with extraordinary force;” whereas, in after life, some of our expressions “cease to have the pure and simple source from which they spring in infancy.”
[...]
3Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though described in not exactly the same terms; and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne’s photographs, reading at the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been.
4Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy beauty. [...]
Charles Darwin, Source 1: Darwin on how he gathered evidence about expression (1872) (1872; this edition 1899). Public domain (published 1899). Source text.
Then read Source 3, a current page from the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), part of the National Institutes of Health.
1American Sign Language (ASL) is a complete, natural language that has the same linguistic properties as spoken languages, with grammar that differs from English. ASL is expressed by movements of the hands and face. It is the primary language of many North Americans who are deaf and hard of hearing and is used by some hearing people as well.
[...]
2There is no universal sign language. Different sign languages are used in different countries or regions. For example, British Sign Language (BSL) is a different language from ASL, and Americans who know ASL may not understand BSL. Some countries adopt features of ASL in their sign languages.
[...]
3ASL is a language completely separate and distinct from English. It contains all the fundamental features of language, with its own rules for pronunciation, word formation, and word order. While every language has ways of signaling different functions, such as asking a question rather than making a statement, languages differ in how this is done. For example, English speakers may ask a question by raising the pitch of their voices and by adjusting word order; ASL users ask a question by raising their eyebrows, widening their eyes, and tilting their bodies forward.
4Just as with other languages, specific ways of expressing ideas in ASL vary as much as ASL users themselves. In addition to individual differences in expression, ASL has regional accents and dialects; just as certain English words are spoken differently in different parts of the country, ASL has regional variations in the rhythm of signing, pronunciation, slang, and signs used. Other sociological factors, including age and gender, can affect ASL usage and contribute to its variety, just as with spoken languages.
[...]
5Parents are often the source of a child’s early acquisition of language, but for children who are deaf, additional people may be models for language acquisition. A deaf child born to parents who are deaf and who already use ASL will begin to acquire ASL as naturally as a hearing child picks up spoken language from hearing parents. However, for a deaf child with hearing parents who have no prior experience with ASL, language may be acquired differently. In fact, 9 out of 10 children who are born deaf are born to parents who hear. [...]
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health, Source 3: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, American Sign Language (2021). US government work (17 U.S.C. 105). Source text.
From a limit: Source 1, paragraph 3
Darwin showed Duchenne's photographs to "above twenty educated persons of various ages and both sexes."
Result: Limit: a small sample, all educated adults. Research question (relational): Do viewers with different amounts of schooling agree equally often when naming the emotions in the same photographs? Variables: amount of schooling and agreement with the intended emotion.
From a stated source of error: Source 1, paragraph 1
Darwin writes that when we witness deep emotion, "our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten."
Result: Research question (relational): Do people describe the expressions in a video less accurately when the person in it is a close friend than when the person is a stranger? It is open, measurable (accuracy against a recorded description) and practical with filmed volunteers who agree to take part.
From a combination: Sources 2 and 3
Darwin asked whether the head is "nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally in negation" (Source 2, paragraph 7). NIDCD says "There is no universal sign language" (Source 3, paragraph 2).
Result: Research question (descriptive): In sign languages from five different countries, do a head nod and a head shake carry yes and no meanings, as Darwin asked about gestures? Neither source alone raises this question about sign languages.
From a topic to a research question
A student's first question is "Are emotions universal?"
Result: Too broad: it names no variables, no people and no measure. Narrowed: Do adults from three countries agree equally often when naming the same six posed expressions? It is focused (adults, three countries, six expressions), measurable (agreement) and open.
Go back to the warm-up questions on the board. Pick two and narrow each one with the four checks.
Guided Practice15 minutes
Read Source 2 together. In 1867 Darwin circulated printed questions (queries) to observers in many parts of the world; these are some of his queries and what he said about the answers. Teacher note: Darwin's words "races of mankind" and "aborigines" reflect 19th-century ideas and are outdated; in discussion, use words such as cultures, peoples or communities. His conclusion of "remarkable uniformity" rests on 36 answers, some only yes or no, so treat it as a claim to question, not a settled finding.
1Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have associated but little with Europeans. [...] Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been greatly improved. [...]
2(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide, and by the eyebrows being raised?
3(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
[...]
4(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?
[...]
5(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into the eyes?
[...]
6(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
[...]
7(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally in negation?
8[...] General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much value.
9To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. [...] In many instances, the circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity; [...]
Charles Darwin, Source 2: Darwin's printed queries to observers around the world (1867-1872) (1872; this edition 1899). Public domain (published 1899). Source text.
Kind of question. Darwin's queries are already questions. Ask: are they descriptive, relational or causal? Pairs label queries (1) and (14) and explain their choice.
A limit. Paragraph 1: Darwin admits the queries "might have been greatly improved." Ask: what would make query (1) more measurable? (For example, ask observers to record how many of the people they saw opened their eyes wide when astonished.)
Evidence quality. Paragraph 8: Darwin asks for "a definite description" of the face and the circumstances. Ask: why would that be better evidence than a general remark?
Generate. Pairs write one new research question from Source 2 and label its kind and the place they found it (gap, limit, conflict, surprise or combination).
Now read Source 4, an invented study with invented data. It is a small study (20 people per group, one actor, posed photos), so any question it raises needs a larger and better study to answer.
1Invented study with invented data, written for this page. A researcher showed 6 photographs of an actor posing facial expressions to 40 adult volunteers. Twenty volunteers grew up in the United States; the other 20 grew up in other countries and had moved to the United States within the past two years.
2Each volunteer looked at each photograph for 10 seconds and wrote one English word for the feeling shown. An answer counted as agreeing if it matched the label the actor had been asked to pose (for example, "happy" or "glad" for happiness).
3Results, as the number of volunteers in each group of 20 whose answer agreed: happiness, 19 and 18; surprise, 16 and 15; sadness, 15 and 12; anger, 14 and 10; disgust, 12 and 9; deep thinking, 7 and 6. The first number in each pair is the group that grew up in the United States.
4Across all 6 photographs, the group that grew up in the United States agreed on 83 of 120 answers, and the group that moved agreed on 70 of 120.
5The researcher notes three limits: only one actor posed the expressions, the photographs were posed rather than natural, and the second group came from many different countries.
SVHS (invented scenario), Source 4: A photo study of facial expressions (invented study with invented data) (2026). Original passage written for this page.
Source 4 results: number of volunteers out of 20 whose answer agreed (invented data)
Expression
Grew up in the United States
Moved within the past two years
Happiness
19
18
Surprise
16
15
Sadness
15
12
Anger
14
10
Disgust
12
9
Deep thinking
7
6
All 6 photos
83 of 120
70 of 120
Discuss: which expressions got high agreement in both groups, and which got low agreement in both? Which result is a surprise worth a question?
Independent Practice15 minutes
Students read Source 5 on their own. It is an invented case: one parent's notes about one toddler, so it can suggest questions but cannot answer them.
1Invented diary notes, written for this page. A parent kept these notes about her daughter Ana, who is 14 months old.
2Monday. Ana's older brother made a silly face at her across the table. She stared, then laughed so hard she nearly fell off her chair. When he made the same face again an hour later, she only smiled.
3Tuesday. A neighbor's dog barked loudly at the gate. Ana froze and turned to look at my face. I smiled and said "silly dog," and she went back to playing. Her grandmother says Ana's father did the same thing at that age.
4Thursday. At the clinic, Ana cried when the nurse came close, even before anything happened. She had cried there at her last visit, too.
5Saturday. Ana's cousin Lena, who is deaf and whose parents use ASL at home, visited. Lena is 3. When Lena asked her mother a question in sign, she raised her eyebrows. Ana watched Lena's face closely the whole afternoon.
SVHS (invented scenario), Source 5: A parent's diary notes about a toddler (invented case) (2026). Original passage written for this page.
Task: write three research questions, each from a different source, and one that combines two sources. For each, give its kind (descriptive, relational or causal), the source sentence that prompted it (with paragraph number), and a one-line check: focused, measurable, open, ethical. Any study described is planned on paper only; students do not collect data from anyone. Sources 1-5 are used again in the quiz and homework.
Closure5-10 minutes
Exit ticket: "Write your best research question from today. Under it, name the source that prompted it and explain how a second source could change or sharpen it."
Teacher notes. (1) Sources 1 and 2 contain 19th-century language and ideas that are labeled as outdated; an omitted part of Darwin's introduction about asylum patients is left out. (2) Sources 4 and 5 and all of their numbers are invented. (3) Research questions about young children, deaf students or any other group are written and planned on paper only; a real study would need consent, review and, for minors, parent permission.
Differentiation Strategies
For Struggling Students
Give sentence frames: "Is ___ related to ___ in ___?" and "Does ___ change ___ in ___?"
Pre-mark one limit or gap in each source with a margin note
Let students write two research questions instead of three in Independent Practice, one of them from Source 4
For Advanced Students
Write a causal question from Source 4 and explain what design would rule out the confounds the researcher lists
Find a conflict between Source 2 and Source 3 and write a question that would test it
Rank three classmates' questions by how much each would add to what the sources already say, and defend the ranking
Assessment Guidance
What to Look For
Strong questions name the variables and the people, can be answered with evidence, are not already answered by the sources, and cite the sentence that prompted them with its paragraph number. Watch for topics posing as questions ("facial expressions in other cultures"), value questions ("Should ...?"), questions the source already answers, and causal wording used for a question that only a correlational study could address.
02
Classroom Activities
3 Activities
1
Question Stations: One Source per Table
15 minGroups of 3-4, rotating
Set up five stations, one for each source. Groups spend 3 minutes at each station and leave one question slip per station. Each slip gives a research question, its kind (descriptive, relational or causal), and the sentence that prompted it with its paragraph number. Groups may not repeat a question already on the station's pile.
Station Prompts
Source 1: find a limit in how Darwin gathered evidence.
Source 2: pick one query and make it more measurable.
Source 3: find a gap, something the page raises but does not answer.
Source 4: find a surprise in the data.
Source 5: find a pattern across two diary days.
Debrief Questions
Which station produced the most causal questions? Why might a data set suggest causes more readily than a diary?
Pick the best slip from each pile. What makes it better than the others?
2
Fix the Question: Eight Weak Questions
15 minPairs
Each pair gets 8 cards, each with a weak research question about faces and feelings. Pairs name the main problem with each (topic only, value question, already answered, too broad, design mismatch, vague term, unethical method, or no comparison) and rewrite it as a focused question.
The 8 Cards
Faces and feelings in other countries.
Should parents make silly faces at their babies?
Is British Sign Language a different language from ASL?
Why are people emotional?
In a survey of how often people cry, do sad movies cause more crying than happy movies?
Is smiling good?
Do babies show fear when a stranger frightens them on purpose?
Do teenagers recognize anger?
Answer Key
1: topic only, no question. Rewrite: Do adults in two countries agree equally often when naming six posed expressions?
2: value question; research can inform it but not answer "should." Rewrite: How often do parents of 1-year-olds make playful faces during a meal?
3: already answered by Source 3, paragraph 2.
4: too broad to study. Rewrite: Is daily stress related to how strongly teens rate their own emotions?
5: design mismatch: a survey cannot show cause. Rewrite as relational, or keep the causal question and plan an experiment.
6: vague term ("good" for what?). Rewrite: Is smiling at a stranger related to whether the stranger smiles back?
7: unethical method: frightening babies on purpose is not acceptable. Rewrite using everyday events that already happen, observed with parent permission.
8: no comparison and no measure. Rewrite: Do 13-year-olds and 17-year-olds name posed anger equally accurately?
Variation: Make Your Own
Each pair writes one new weak question with a hidden flaw and trades it with another pair.
3
Two Sources, One New Question
15 minGroups of 3
Each group draws two source numbers and writes one research question that neither source would prompt alone. On the Two-Source planner they record the sentence from each source, the question, its kind, and the kind of source or study that could answer it. Any study is planned on paper only.
Model Planner (Sources 3 and 5)
Source 3, paragraph 5: "A deaf child born to parents who are deaf and who already use ASL will begin to acquire ASL as naturally as a hearing child picks up spoken language from hearing parents." Source 5, paragraph 5: Lena, who is 3 and deaf, has parents who use ASL at home, and she uses her face when she signs a question to her mother. Question (descriptive): By age 3, do deaf children of signing parents use the same face signals as signing adults when they sign a question? Source that could answer it: an observation study of several signing families, planned with parent permission and recorded with a simple checklist for each question a child signs.
Gallery Walk
Groups post their planners. Classmates leave a sticky note on each with one check: focused, measurable, open or ethical, and one suggestion.
03
Diagrams & Visual Aids
1 diagrams
Diagram 1: From Sources to a Research Question
Different kinds of sources (left) feed the search for a gap, limit, conflict, surprise or combination (center). The draft question is then checked before it becomes a research question. The steps are a summary written for this page.
04
Homework Assignment
~30 min
Homework: From Sources to Research Questions
Directions: Part 1 uses Sources 2, 3 and 4. Quote every source you use with its paragraph number. Part 2 asks you to generate questions from a new source and to plan a study on paper only: do not run it on anyone.
Part 1: Questions from the Sources (Problems 1-3)
Source 3, paragraph 4 says that age and gender "can affect ASL usage." Write one relational research question based on this sentence, name its two variables, and explain why it is still open after reading Source 3.
In Source 4, what percent of each group agreed on the sadness photograph? What is the gap in percentage points? Show your work. Then write one causal research question about a possible reason for the gap, and name one detail from paragraph 2 or 5 that a better study would need to control.
Darwin's query (2) in Source 2, paragraph 3 asks whether shame causes a blush. Explain why a yes or no answer from one observer is weak evidence, using paragraph 9, and rewrite the query as a research question with a measurable outcome.
Part 2: New Questions and a Plan (Problems 4-6)
Invented source: a school newspaper survey of 120 students found that 75 said they can usually tell when a friend is upset from a text message alone. What percent is that? Write one descriptive, one relational and one causal research question that this survey suggests.
Choose one of your questions from Problem 4 or Problem 1. Describe, on paper only, the kind of source or study that could answer it, who the participants would be, what you would measure, and one ethical step you would take.
Compare two kinds of sources from this lesson: a historical source (Source 1 or 2) and the data set (Source 4). Name one thing the historical source shows that the data set cannot, and one thing the data set shows that the historical source cannot, each with a paragraph number. For each, write one research question that only that kind of source would prompt.
Rubric
Criterion
Full Credit (2 pts)
Partial Credit (1 pt)
No Credit (0 pts)
Research questions
Questions are focused, measurable, open and correctly labeled descriptive, relational or causal
Questions are mostly clear but one is a topic, a value question or mislabeled
Questions missing or not researchable
Use of sources
Each question cites the source sentence and paragraph that prompted it
Sources named without paragraph numbers, or one question not tied to a source
No sources used
Limits and data
Computations are correct and limits of small or invented samples are noted
Computations correct but limits not noted, or one error
Computations missing or wrong
Study plan
Plan matches the question's kind, names participants and measures, and includes an ethical step, on paper only
Plan addresses some of these
No plan, or a plan that would harm or deceive participants
05
Quiz: 20 Questions
Interactive, with answers
Instructions
Sources 1 and 3 are printed in Direct Instruction, Sources 2 and 4 in Guided Practice, and Source 5 in Independent Practice. Source 1 is used in Questions 1-3, 15, 19 and 20; Source 2 in Questions 4, 5, 14 and 16; Source 3 in Questions 6, 7, 12, 17 and 20; Source 4 in Questions 8-10, 18 and 20; and Source 5 in Questions 13, 14 and 19. Question 11 needs no printed source. Questions 1-14 are multiple choice; 15-20 are short answer.
Multiple choice: pick an option to check it. Short answer: write your answer, then reveal the model answer.
0 of 20 answered · 0 correct
Question 1 of 20 · Multiple Choice
According to Source 1, paragraph 1, why is imagination "a still more serious source of error" in studying expression?
Answer: C
Darwin writes that "if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence." A is the first difficulty he names, and B is the sympathy error, which mixes up his three separate problems. D comes from paragraph 3 and is not about imagination.
Question 2 of 20 · Multiple Choice
In Source 1, paragraph 3, why was it important that Darwin showed the photographs "without a word of explanation"?
Answer: A
Darwin says that when he first looked at the photographs "reading at the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended," he found them all truthful, but without the explanation he would have been "as much perplexed" as others. Telling viewers the intended emotion would create the expectation error from paragraph 1. B, C and D are not reasons given in the source.
Question 3 of 20 · Multiple Choice
According to Source 1, paragraph 2, why did Darwin choose to observe infants?
Answer: D
Darwin quotes Bell: infants "exhibit many emotions ... 'with extraordinary force,'" while later in life some expressions lose "the pure and simple source from which they spring in infancy." A is close but adds an idea about hiding that the source does not state. C would undercut his reason for studying infants. B is not in the source.
Question 4 of 20 · Multiple Choice
In Source 2, paragraph 9, Darwin says he received yes-or-no answers "with caution." What makes such an answer weaker evidence than a described observation?
Answer: B
Darwin trusts answers in which "the circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression itself described"; a bare yes or no gives neither. A and C judge the observer's location or job rather than the evidence. D is not in the source: he asked for observations, not memory, but does not say when the answers were written.
Question 5 of 20 · Multiple Choice
Darwin's query (12) asks: "Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into the eyes?" (Source 2, paragraph 5). What kind of research question is this?
Answer: A
It asks whether something happens, so it is descriptive. B would need two variables that go together, such as laughter strength and age. C confuses the wording "bring tears" with a test of cause: the query asks only whether tears ever occur, not whether changing one variable changes another. D is wrong because observations can answer it.
Question 6 of 20 · Multiple Choice
According to Source 3, paragraph 3, how do ASL users ask a question?
Answer: C
NIDCD says "ASL users ask a question by raising their eyebrows, widening their eyes, and tilting their bodies forward." A is the English example in the same sentence, a misreading of which language it describes. B is also part of the English example ("adjusting word order"). D is not in the source.
Question 7 of 20 · Multiple Choice
A student proposes the research question "Does ASL use the face as well as the hands?" Why is this a weak research question after reading Source 3?
Answer: D
Source 3, paragraph 1 says "ASL is expressed by movements of the hands and face," so the question is not open. A could be fixed but is not the main problem. B is wrong: it is a factual question. C is wrong: it could be measured, but the answer is already known.
Question 8 of 20 · Multiple Choice
In Source 4, paragraph 4, what percent of answers agreed for the group that moved to the United States within the past two years?
Answer: B
70 / 120 = 0.5833, about 58.3%. A is the other group's rate, 83 / 120. C combines both groups, (83 + 70) / 240. D is the share of answers that did not agree, 50 / 120, which answers the opposite question.
Question 9 of 20 · Multiple Choice
In Source 4, paragraph 3, for which expression is the gap between the two groups' agreement counts the largest?
Answer: C
The gaps are happiness 19 - 18 = 1, surprise 1, sadness 15 - 12 = 3, anger 14 - 10 = 4, disgust 12 - 9 = 3 and deep thinking 1, so anger has the largest gap. A and B have the next largest gap, 3, an easy slip when comparing by eye. D has the highest agreement, not the largest gap.
Question 10 of 20 · Multiple Choice
Which detail in Source 4 means the gap between the groups could come from something other than where the volunteers grew up?
Answer: A
Paragraph 2 says each volunteer "wrote one English word." Volunteers who moved recently may be newer to English, so lower agreement could reflect language, not how they read faces. B, C and D were the same for both groups, so they limit the study but cannot explain a difference between the groups, which is the mistake of treating any limit as a group difference.
Question 11 of 20 · Multiple Choice
Which of these is a causal research question?
Answer: D
D asks whether changing one variable (a week of practice) changes another (accuracy), so it is causal and would need an experiment. A is descriptive (how often). B is relational (whether two variables go together), the usual mix-up of relation and cause. C is a value question that research can inform but not answer.
Question 12 of 20 · Multiple Choice
Which is the best-formed research question?
Answer: B
B names the people (teens), two measurable variables (hours of sleep and accuracy) and is open. A is too broad to study and cannot be measured as written. C is a value question. D is already answered by Source 3, paragraph 1.
Question 13 of 20 · Multiple Choice
Which research question does the Tuesday entry in Source 5 (paragraph 3) most directly prompt?
Answer: A
On Tuesday Ana "froze and turned to look at my face" after the dog barked, then calmed when her mother smiled. B comes from Monday (paragraph 2), C from Thursday (paragraph 4) and D from Saturday (paragraph 5): each is a good question, but from a different entry, the error of matching the topic rather than the entry.
Question 14 of 20 · Multiple Choice
Darwin asked his observers for one thing that the diary entries in Source 5 also give. Which is it?
Answer: C
Source 2, paragraph 8 asks for "a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred"; each diary entry says what happened just before Ana's reaction. A is what Darwin accepted only "with caution." B he calls "of comparatively little value," and D he asks observers not to trust, which reverses his request.
Question 15 of 20 · Short Answer
In Source 1, paragraph 3, Darwin reports that for some photographs "the most widely different judgments were pronounced." Write one research question this sentence prompts, label its kind, name its variables, and explain where in the source you found it (gap, limit, conflict, surprise or combination).
Model answer: Question (relational): Is the number of facial muscles that are moving in a posed expression related to how often viewers agree on the emotion shown? Variables: how many muscles move in the expression, and the percent of viewers who name the intended emotion. It comes from a surprise and a gap: Darwin found that some expressions were "instantly recognised by almost everyone" while others got widely different judgments, but he does not say what made the difference. Other good questions are accepted if they are focused, measurable, open and tied to the sentence. Rubric: 2 = question, kind, variables and source move all correct with a quotation; 1 = question with one or two parts missing; 0 = no researchable question.
Question 16 of 20 · Short Answer
Rewrite Darwin's query (6) in Source 2, paragraph 4 as a research question a modern study could answer. Say what kind of question it is and what kind of source or study could answer it.
Model answer: Darwin asks whether "in good spirits" the eyes sparkle and the skin wrinkles "round and under them." Rewrite (relational): Is the amount of wrinkling around the eyes in a smile related to whether viewers judge the smile as real or posed? A study could film volunteers who agree to take part, rate the eye wrinkling in each smile, and ask a separate group of viewers to judge each smile. It is relational because it asks whether two measured variables go together. Rubric: 2 = measurable rewrite tied to the query, correct kind, and a workable study; 1 = two of these; 0 = fewer.
Question 17 of 20 · Short Answer
Source 3, paragraph 5 says that "9 out of 10 children who are born deaf are born to parents who hear." Write one relational research question that uses this information, name its variables, and explain why a researcher would study it with observations or existing records rather than an experiment.
Model answer: Question: Among deaf 5-year-olds, is the age at which a child first had regular contact with signing adults related to the size of the child's sign vocabulary? Variables: age at first regular contact with signing adults, and sign vocabulary size. A researcher could not ethically assign children to get less language contact, so the question must be studied by observing families or using existing records, with parents' permission. This is why it is a relational, not a causal, question. Rubric: 2 = relational question, variables and an ethical reason for a non-experimental design; 1 = two of these; 0 = fewer.
Question 18 of 20 · Short Answer
Using Source 4, write one descriptive and one causal research question. For the causal question, name one limit listed in paragraph 5 or one detail in paragraph 2 that a better study would need to fix.
Model answer: Descriptive: Among adults who moved to the United States within the past two years, how often do they agree with the intended label for a posed expression of disgust? Causal: Does letting volunteers answer in their first language change how often they agree on the intended emotion? A better study would fix the one-English-word rule in paragraph 2 by allowing answers in any language, translated later, and would add more than one actor (paragraph 5). Because Source 4 is invented and small (20 people per group), it can suggest these questions but not answer them. Rubric: 2 = both questions correct in kind and tied to the source, plus a fix; 1 = one question or no fix; 0 = neither.
Question 19 of 20 · Short Answer
Combine Source 5 with Source 1 to write one research question that neither source would prompt alone. Quote one sentence from each source.
Model answer: Source 1, paragraph 2 says infants show emotions "with extraordinary force," and Source 5, paragraph 4 says Ana "cried when the nurse came close, even before anything happened," at a place where she had cried before. Question (relational): Is the number of earlier upsetting visits to a clinic related to how strongly toddlers react when a nurse approaches? Source 1 gives the idea that infant emotions are strong and visible, and Source 5 suggests that past experience shapes them; together they point to how learning shapes early emotional reactions. Rubric: 2 = a focused question that truly uses both sources, with a quotation from each; 1 = one source used or one quotation missing; 0 = neither.
Question 20 of 20 · Short Answer
Explain why using different kinds of psychological sources leads to better research questions than using only one kind. Give two examples from this lesson.
Model answer: Each kind of source shows something the others miss. A historical source shows what earlier researchers thought and how they gathered evidence, including limits (Darwin's photographs were judged by about twenty educated persons, Source 1, paragraph 3). A federal summary gives current facts that keep a question from being one that is already answered (Source 3 says ASL is expressed by the hands and face). Data show surprises and gaps (in Source 4, agreement on deep thinking was low in both groups). Reading them together also creates combinations, such as asking whether head nods mean yes in sign languages from different countries. Rubric: 2 = explains the benefit and gives two examples from different kinds of sources; 1 = one example or no explanation; 0 = neither.
0 of 20 answered · 0 correct
06
Frequently Asked Questions
10 Questions
What does D2.Psy.14.9-12 mean?
D2.Psy.14.9-12 asks high school students to use information from different psychological sources to generate research questions. It is an indicator in the C3 Framework's psychology companion (Appendix B), in the group on critical thinking about themes, sources and evidence. Students read several kinds of sources, find what each leaves open, and write focused questions that a study could answer.
What is the difference between a topic and a research question?
A topic names an area ("facial expressions"); a research question asks something specific that evidence can answer. A good research question names the people and the variables, can be measured, and is not already answered by the sources. Turning a topic into a question is the main skill of this indicator.
What counts as a psychological source for D2.Psy.14.9-12?
Any source that gives information about thought or behavior: published studies, historical writing by psychologists and scientists, official summaries from agencies such as the National Institutes of Health, data sets, case notes and observations. This lesson uses five kinds on one topic so students see how each suggests different questions.
Why does this lesson use Darwin, who was not a psychologist?
Darwin's 1872 book on emotional expression is an early, careful attempt to gather several kinds of evidence on a psychological question, and he writes openly about his methods and their errors. That makes it a useful source for spotting limits and gaps. The page labels his 19th-century language about peoples and patients as outdated.
How do I teach descriptive, relational and causal questions?
Use one topic and write all three kinds: how often something happens (descriptive), whether two variables go together (relational), and whether changing one variable changes another (causal). Then ask what kind of study each would need: observation or survey for the first two, an experiment for the third. Students often use causal wording for questions only a survey could address.
Do students collect data in this lesson?
No. Students generate questions and plan studies on paper only. Source 4's data and Source 5's diary are invented for the page. Any real study with people, and especially with minors, would need consent, review and parent permission.
How is D2.Psy.14.9-12 different from D2.Psy.15.9-12?
D2.Psy.14.9-12 is about asking: using sources to generate research questions. D2.Psy.15.9-12 is about answering: using existing evidence to formulate conclusions. Teaching 14 first gives students good questions to bring to the evidence in 15.
What makes a research question ethical?
A question is ethical to study if it can be answered without harming, frightening or deceiving people beyond what a review would allow, and with their consent. Some questions, such as whether frightening babies changes their behavior, can only be studied ethically by observing events that already happen. Students should note an ethical step with every plan.
How should I grade generated research questions?
Use four checks: focused (names the people and variables), measurable, open (not already answered by the sources), and ethical. Also check that the question cites the sentence that prompted it. The homework rubric turns these into points; reward the reasoning about sources rather than how interesting the topic is.
Can D2.Psy.14.9-12 be taught with a topic other than facial expression?
Yes. Any topic with several kinds of sources works, such as sleep, memory or stress. Keep the same steps: read different kinds of sources, look for gaps, limits, conflicts, surprises and combinations, draft questions, and check them.
07
Related Standards
6 standards
These standards connect to D2.Psy.14.9-12: prerequisites to review first, parallel standards at the same level, and next steps that build on it.
Before this lesson
D2.Psy.1.9-12Prerequisite
Understand the scientific methods at the core of psychology
Standard text: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K-12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and History (Silver Spring, MD: NCSS, 2013). NCSS was not involved in the production of this lesson and does not endorse it.
