Overview

Lesson Procedure

55-65 minutes of class time across 5 phases.

1. Warm-Up5-10 minutes
2. Direct Instruction15 minutes
3. Guided Practice15 minutes
4. Independent Practice15 minutes
5. Closure5-10 minutes

1. Warm-Up5-10 minutes

   Warm-Up Prompt

   "A classmate says: 'Our class should get a class pet hamster. Hamsters are cute, my cousin's class has one, and everyone would take care of it.' Which part of this is the claim? Which reason would you believe, and which would you question?"

   Take three or four answers. On the board, write the claim ("Our class should get a hamster") and list the three reasons under it. Ask for each reason: Does it connect to the claim? Is there enough support to convince someone who disagrees? Students usually question "everyone would take care of it": the speaker gives no proof. Tell students that RI.7.8 asks them to do this with a whole text: trace the argument (follow it from claim to reasons to evidence) and evaluate it (judge how well it holds up).

2. Direct Instruction15 minutes

   Teach the terms and leave them on the board:

   • Argument: a writer's attempt to convince readers, made of claims, reasons and evidence. The main claim is what the writer most wants readers to believe; specific claims are the smaller points that support it.
   • Reason: why the writer says the claim is true. Evidence: the facts, numbers, examples, observations or quotations that back up a reason.
   • Reasoning: the thinking that links the evidence to the claim. Reasoning is sound when each step follows from the one before and rests on true starting ideas. An assumption is an idea the writer takes for granted without proving it.
   • Evidence is relevant when it connects to the claim it supports, and sufficient when there is enough of it, and it is strong enough, to convince a careful reader who disagrees.
   • Counterclaim: a claim that opposes the writer's. A strong argument answers it with reasons and evidence.
   • Satire: writing that makes fun of people's habits or foolish ideas, often by pretending to be serious.

   Tracing and evaluating: questions to ask

   Step	Question
   Trace: claim	What does the writer want me to believe? Which smaller claims support it?
   Trace: support	What reasons and evidence go with each claim?
   Evaluate: relevant	Does this evidence connect to this claim, or to something else?
   Evaluate: sufficient	Is there enough evidence, of a strong enough kind, for a claim this big?
   Evaluate: sound	Do the steps follow? What does the writer assume without proof?

   Introduce the text. In 1784, Benjamin Franklin was living at Passy, near Paris, as the American minister (the chief representative of the United States) to France. He wrote a letter "To the Authors of the Journal of Paris," a French newspaper, and signed it only "A Subscriber." In it, he pretends to have made a surprising discovery. The letter is satire: many wealthy Parisians of the time stayed up late, slept long past sunrise and lit their homes at night with expensive candles, and Franklin pokes fun at them while making a real point about saving money. The letter is a real argument, with claims, evidence and a calculation, even though it is also a joke. It is sometimes called an early idea for daylight saving time, but Franklin proposed getting up earlier, not changing clocks. Just before Passage 1, Franklin has been at a party where guests admired a new, brighter oil lamp and wondered whether it would cost less to burn. Words to know: domestic (a household servant), negligently omitted (carelessly forgot), almanac (a yearly book that lists, among other things, the time of sunrise for each day), retarded his rising so long as till eight o'clock (rose as late as eight), astronomical (about the sun, moon and stars), countenances (faces), forbear (hold back from), natural philosopher (an old name for a scientist), abroad (outside), of consequence (as a result), owned (admitted) and subsequent (later). Franklin calls the sun "he," as many writers of his time did. Read Passage 1 aloud.

   1I went home, and to bed, three or four hours after midnight, with my head full of the subject. An accidental sudden noise waked me about six in the morning, when I was surprised to find my room filled with light; and I imagined at first, that a number of those lamps had been brought into it; but, rubbing my eyes, I perceived the light came in at the windows. I got up and looked out to see what might be the occasion of it, when I saw the sun just rising above the horizon, from whence he poured his rays plentifully into my chamber, my domestic having negligently omitted, the preceding evening, to close the shutters.

   2I looked at my watch, which goes very well, and found that it was but six o'clock; and still thinking it something extraordinary that the sun should rise so early, I looked into the almanac, where I found it to be the hour given for his rising on that day. I looked forward, too, and found he was to rise still earlier every day till towards the end of June; and that at no time in the year he retarded his rising so long as till eight o'clock. Your readers, who with me have never seen any signs of sunshine before noon, and seldom regard the astronomical part of the almanac, will be as much astonished as I was, when they hear of his rising so early; and especially when I assure them, that he gives light as soon as he rises. I am convinced of this. I am certain of my fact. One cannot be more certain of any fact. I saw it with my own eyes. And, having repeated this observation the three following mornings, I found always precisely the same result.

   3Yet it so happens, that when I speak of this discovery to others, I can easily perceive by their countenances, though they forbear expressing it in words, that they do not quite believe me. One, indeed, who is a learned natural philosopher, has assured me that I must certainly be mistaken as to the circumstance of the light coming into my room; for it being well known, as he says, that there could be no light abroad at that hour, it follows that none could enter from without; and that of consequence, my windows being accidentally left open, instead of letting in the light, had only served to let out the darkness; [...] I owned that he puzzled me a little, but he did not satisfy me; and the subsequent observations I made, as above mentioned, confirmed me in my first opinion.

   • Trace: find a specific claim and its evidence

     In paragraph 2, Franklin assures readers "that he gives light as soon as he rises." What kind of statement is this, and what support does he give for it?

     Result: It is a specific claim: the sun's light arrives the moment it rises. Franklin supports it with three pieces of evidence. He saw it himself ("I saw it with my own eyes"), he checked it again ("having repeated this observation the three following mornings"), and he found the sunrise time "in the almanac." Tracing means writing the claim down and listing each piece of evidence under it.

   • Evaluate: relevant and sufficient evidence

     Is Franklin's evidence for the claim that the sun gives light when it rises relevant and sufficient?

     Result: It is relevant: each piece is about sunlight at sunrise. For a claim this small, it is also sufficient: four mornings of looking, plus the almanac, would convince any doubter. That is the joke. Franklin piles strong evidence on a fact that everyone already knows, to tease readers who never get up early enough to see it.

   • Evaluate: a claim with no evidence

     Franklin writes, "Your readers, who with me have never seen any signs of sunshine before noon, and seldom regard the astronomical part of the almanac, will be as much astonished as I was." What does this sentence claim, and how well is the claim supported?

     Result: It claims that his readers, like him, sleep until noon and never notice the sunrise times. Franklin offers no evidence about his readers at all: no count, no examples. He speaks for everyone ("who with me") on the strength of his own habits. The claim is not sufficiently supported, and the whole money-saving plan will depend on it.

   • Assess reasoning: a false starting idea

     The "learned natural philosopher" reasons that "it being well known ... that there could be no light abroad at that hour, it follows that none could enter from without," so Franklin's open windows must have served "to let out the darkness." Is this reasoning sound?

     Result: No. Each step follows from the one before, but the first step is false: there is light outside at six in the morning in spring, as Franklin saw. Reasoning that starts from a false idea cannot be sound, however clever the steps. "Well known" is not evidence either. Franklin answers with evidence instead: "the subsequent observations I made."

   • Trace the whole passage

     Put the pieces together. How does Passage 1 build toward Franklin's main claim?

     Result: Franklin's main claim, which Passage 2 will spell out, is that Parisians could save money by rising with the sun. Passage 1 lays the groundwork with two specific claims: that the sun gives light as soon as it rises (well supported) and that his readers sleep until noon (not supported). It also answers one counterclaim, the philosopher's, whose reasoning is unsound. Diagram 1 maps these parts.

   Claim, support, check. Show Diagram 1 and model the three moves with the examples: write the claim; list the reasons and evidence under it; check each piece (relevant? sufficient? sound?). Stress that an argument can be funny and still have real parts to trace. Give students a frame: "Franklin claims that ___. He supports this with ___. This evidence is / is not relevant because ___, and it is / is not sufficient because ___. The reasoning is / is not sound because ___."

3. Guided Practice15 minutes

   Read Passage 2 aloud: the calculation that follows Passage 1 in the letter. French money of the time helps here: the livre tournois (usually just "livre") was the main unit of money, and a sol was one twentieth of a livre. Other words to know: induced (led), muster up (gather), utility (usefulness), bougies (French for candles), moderate allowance (a fair, not too high, amount), medium quantity (average amount), wax and tallow (the materials candles were made of; tallow is animal fat) and immense (huge).

   1This event has given rise in my mind to several serious and important reflections. I considered that, if I had not been awakened so early in the morning, I should have slept six hours longer by the light of the sun, and in exchange have lived six hours the following night by candle-light; and, the latter being a much more expensive light than the former, my love of economy induced me to muster up what little arithmetic I was master of, and to make some calculations, which I shall give you, after observing that utility is, in my opinion the test of value in matters of invention, and that a discovery which can be applied to no use, or is not good for something, is good for nothing.

   2I took for the basis of my calculation the supposition that there are one hundred thousand families in Paris, and that these families consume in the night half a pound of bougies, or candles, per hour. I think this is a moderate allowance, taking one family with another; for though I believe some consume less, I know that many consume a great deal more. Then estimating seven hours per day as the medium quantity between the time of the sun's rising and ours, he rising during the six following months from six to eight hours before noon, and there being seven hours of course per night in which we burn candles, the account will stand thus;—

   3In the six months between the 20th of March and the 20th of September, there are
   Nights 183
   Hours of each night in which we burn candles 7
   Multiplication gives for the total number of hours 1,281
   These 1,281 hours multiplied by 100,000, the number of inhabitants, give 128,100,000
   One hundred twenty-eight millions and one hundred thousand hours, spent at Paris by candle-light, which, at half a pound of wax and tallow per hour, gives the weight of 64,050,000
   Sixty-four millions and fifty thousand of pounds, which, estimating the whole at the medium price of thirty sols the pound, makes the sum of ninety-six millions and seventy-five thousand livres tournois 96,075,000

   4An immense sum! that the city of Paris might save every year, by the economy of using sunshine instead of candles.

   Pairs fill in Diagram 2, the claim check card, for the claim "An immense sum!" could be saved (paragraph 4). They answer the three questions below, then share. Teacher notes:

   1. Trace the chain. List each step from the table in paragraph 3. Teacher note: 183 nights times 7 hours gives 1,281 hours; times 100,000 gives 128,100,000 hours; at half a pound an hour that is 64,050,000 pounds of candles; at 30 sols (one and a half livres) a pound that is 96,075,000 livres. The arithmetic is correct. Tracing shows that the huge total rests on three starting numbers: the number of families, the half pound an hour and the seven hours a night.
   2. The seven hours. Where does "seven hours per day" come from? Teacher note: Franklin calls it "the medium quantity between the time of the sun's rising and ours." The number assumes that Parisians rise around noon, which is claim B from Passage 1, the claim with no evidence. The reasoning passes an unsupported assumption into the total.
   3. Families or inhabitants? Compare the start of paragraph 2 with the fifth line of the table. Teacher note: Franklin supposes "one hundred thousand families" but multiplies by "100,000, the number of inhabitants." A family is not the same as a person, so the reasoning shifts its meaning in the middle of the calculation. A careful reader catches this even though the multiplication itself is right.
4. Independent Practice15 minutes

   Students read Passage 3, the next part of Franklin's letter, and Passage 4, a school newspaper editorial invented for this page, on their own, and answer the quiz with Passages 1-4 open. They may fill in a fresh copy of Diagram 2 for Passage 4 first. Words to know for Passage 3: obstinately attached (stubbornly stuck), induce (persuade), Nil desperandum (Latin for "never despair"), contrive (find a way), compel (force), a louis (a gold coin worth 24 livres), salutary (helpful), chandlers (candle sellers), coaches, &c. (carriages and so on), sluggards (lazy people), reformation (change for the better), irregularity (bad habit), ce n'est que le premier pas qui coûte (French for "only the first step is hard"), oblige (force), unconsumed (not used up) and ensuing (following). For Passage 4: a shelter is a place that gives people who have no home a place to stay and things they need.

   1If it should be said, that people are apt to be obstinately attached to old customs, and that it will be difficult to induce them to rise before noon, consequently my discovery can be of little use; I answer, Nil desperandum. I believe all who have common sense, as soon as they have learnt from this paper that it is daylight when the sun rises, will contrive to rise with him; and, to compel the rest, I would propose the following regulations;

   2First. Let a tax be laid of a louis per window, on every window that is provided with shutters to keep out the light of the sun.

   3Second. Let the same salutary operation of police be made use of, to prevent our burning candles, that inclined us last winter to be more economical in burning wood; that is, let guards be placed in the shops of the wax and tallow chandlers, and no family be permitted to be supplied with more than one pound of candles per week.

   4Third. Let guards also be posted to stop all the coaches, &c. that would pass the streets after sun-set, except those of physicians, surgeons, and midwives.

   5Fourth. Every morning, as soon as the sun rises, let all the bells in every church be set ringing; and if that is not sufficient, let cannon be fired in every street, to wake the sluggards effectually, and make them open their eyes to see their true interest.

   6All the difficulty will be in the first two or three days; after which the reformation will be as natural and easy as the present irregularity; for, ce n'est que le premier pas qui coûte. Oblige a man to rise at four in the morning, and it is more than probable he will go willingly to bed at eight in the evening; and, having had eight hours sleep, he will rise more willingly at four in the morning following. But this sum of ninety-six millions and seventy-five thousand livres is not the whole of what may be saved by my economical project. You may observe, that I have calculated upon only one half of the year, and much may be saved in the other, though the days are shorter. Besides, the immense stock of wax and tallow left unconsumed during the summer, will probably make candles much cheaper for the ensuing winter, and continue them cheaper as long as the proposed reformation shall be supported.

   1Every month, our school should donate the clothes and bottles that have sat in the lost-and-found bin for more than a week to the Harbor Street Shelter. The bin is overflowing, the owners are not coming back, and people in our town need these things.

   2First, the bin is overflowing. Last Friday, I counted everything in it: 146 items, including 63 sweatshirts and jackets, 38 water bottles, 21 lunch boxes, 14 hats and 10 single gloves. Some of the jackets have been there since the first week of school.

   3Second, the owners are not coming back. The school office told me that only 9 items were claimed in all of October, and 4 of those 9 had been in the bin for more than a week. My friend Ava lost a jacket in September and never even went to look for it. Students at our school just do not care about their things.

   4Third, people need what is in that bin. The Harbor Street Shelter told me that it gives out about 40 coats a week in the winter, and that it always runs short of warm clothes in January. Also, last year our school won the district's recycling award.

   5Some people will say that an owner might still come back for a lost item. That is why my plan waits one week. If an item has been in the bin for a week, its owner has given up on it.

   6Let's clean out the bin and help our neighbors stay warm.

5. Closure5-10 minutes

   Exit ticket: (1) Write one claim from any passage and one piece of evidence for it. (2) Finish the sentence: "Evidence can be relevant and still not be sufficient when ___."

   Teacher note on the sources and the facts. Passages 1, 2, 3 and 5 are Franklin's own words, from an edition published in 1906, with old spellings kept ("honour"). The letter is satire, so some claims are meant to be absurd, such as firing cannon in the streets; students can still trace and evaluate the argument, and noticing the joke is part of evaluating it. The rule about coaches spares "physicians, surgeons, and midwives" (a midwife helps women give birth), whose work does not stop at night. The editor of the 1906 edition dates the letter March 20, 1784. Passages 4 and 6 are invented for this page: the writers, the school, the shelter, the town, the pool and every number in them are made up, and the numbers are chosen to be realistic. Franklin did not invent daylight saving time; the idea of setting clocks ahead came much later.

   For homework: students read Passage 5, the end of Franklin's letter, and Passage 6, a letter to a town's parks board, invented for this page. Words to know for Passage 5: bestowed (given), place, pension, exclusive privilege (a government job, regular payments, or the sole right to use an invention), envious (jealous), the ancients (people of ancient Greece and Rome), it does not follow thence (that does not prove), the moderns (people of Franklin's own time), judicious (wise), prudent (careful), professing (claiming), necessities of the state (the government's needs) and unwholesome (unhealthy). For Passage 6: a parks board is a group of people who run a town's parks, and a certified lifeguard has passed a lifeguard training course.

   1For the great benefit of this discovery, thus freely communicated and bestowed by me on the public, I demand neither place, pension, exclusive privilege, nor any other reward whatever. I expect only to have the honour of it. And yet I know there are little, envious minds, who will, as usual, deny me this, and say, that my invention was known to the ancients, and perhaps they may bring passages out of the old books in proof of it. I will not dispute with these people, that the ancients knew not the sun would rise at certain hours; they possibly had, as we have, almanacs that predicted it; but it does not follow thence, that they knew he gave light as soon as he rose. This is what I claim as my discovery. If the ancients knew it, it might have been long since forgotten; for it certainly was unknown to the moderns, at least to the Parisians, which to prove, I need use but one plain simple argument. They are as well instructed, judicious, and prudent a people as exist anywhere in the world, all professing, like myself, to be lovers of economy; and, from the many heavy taxes required from them by the necessities of the state, have surely an abundant reason to be economical. I say it is impossible that so sensible a people, under such circumstances, should have lived so long by the smoky, unwholesome, and enormously expensive light of candles, if they had really known, that they might have had as much pure light of the sun for nothing. I am, &c.

   1To the Parks Board:

   2Every year, the Maple Street Pool closes on August 15, about three weeks before Labor Day. I am writing to ask the board to keep the pool open until Labor Day. People still want to swim in late August, and the pool would pay for itself.

   3People still want to swim. On the last Saturday before the pool closed this year, 412 people came. The Parks Department's own report says the pool averaged 180 visitors a day during its last two weeks of the season. Last year, the temperature reached 90 degrees Fahrenheit on 9 of the days between August 15 and Labor Day. Everyone I talked to at the snack bar agrees with me.

   4The pool would pay for itself. Admission is $4, and the Parks Department says it costs about $1,500 a day to run the pool, counting lifeguards, water and chemicals. With so many swimmers, the money from tickets would cover the cost.

   5My family has lived in this town for thirty years, and my grandfather helped paint the pool in 1985. It is part of who we are.

   6Some people say the pool must close because many lifeguards go back to college in August. But the town could hire high school students who are certified lifeguards. The high school swim team has 26 members.

   7Please give our town three more weeks of summer.

   8A Maple Street neighbor

Differentiation Strategies

Assessment Guidance

1. Question 1 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Which sentence is a claim that a writer would need to support with reasons and evidence?

   A"The town library is open from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. on weekdays." B"The town library opened its new wing in March of last year." C"The town library should stay open until 9 p.m. on weekdays." D"The town library has a reading room on its second floor."

2. Question 2 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   A writer claims that the school needs more bike racks. Which piece of evidence is relevant to this claim?

   A"Bikes were invented more than two hundred years ago." B"The racks are full, so 15 bikes a day are locked to the fence." C"My favorite color for a bike is dark green." D"The school also needs a new sign at the front entrance, near the office."

3. Question 3 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Reasoning in an argument is sound when

   Athe writer uses long words and sounds very confident Beach step follows from the last and starts from true ideas Cthe writer repeats the main claim several times near the end Dmost readers already agree with the writer before reading

4. Question 4 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Passage 1, paragraph 2: Franklin writes, "I am convinced of this. I am certain of my fact. One cannot be more certain of any fact." How much do these three sentences add to the support for his claim?

   ANothing: saying he is sure is not evidence; the evidence comes next BA great deal, because a famous scientist's certainty counts as proof CThey prove that the almanac gave the wrong time for the sunrise DThey show that his readers had already agreed with him before he wrote

5. Question 5 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   In Passage 1, which detail shows that Franklin himself keeps the late hours he says his readers keep?

   A"I looked at my watch, which goes very well" B"and seldom regard the astronomical part of the almanac" C"my domestic having negligently omitted ... to close the shutters" D"I went home, and to bed, three or four hours after midnight"

6. Question 6 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Passage 1, paragraph 3: people Franklin talks to "do not quite believe me." Does their disbelief weaken his claim that the sun gives light when it rises?

   AYes, because a claim that many people doubt must be false BYes, because they are experts and Franklin is not a scientist CNo: doubt is not evidence, and his observations still stand DNo, because Franklin proves that all of them are dishonest

7. Question 7 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Why does Franklin present the fact that the sun gives light at sunrise as a surprising "discovery"?

   ATo tease people who sleep so late that they never see the sunrise BTo report a new scientific fact that no one in Paris had known before CTo show that the almanac and his watch did not agree with each other DTo argue that the new oil lamps give more light than the sun does

8. Question 8 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Passage 2, paragraph 1: before his calculation, Franklin says that "utility is, in my opinion the test of value in matters of invention." What job does this sentence do in his argument?

   AIt admits that his discovery has no use, so the calculation does not matter BIt sets the test of usefulness that the calculation will try to pass CIt gives the number of families in Paris that the calculation will need DIt answers the philosopher who said that no light could come in at six

9. Question 9 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Franklin supposes that each family burns half a pound of candles an hour, and says, "I think this is a moderate allowance ... for though I believe some consume less, I know that many consume a great deal more." How well is the half-pound figure supported?

   AVery well: he counted the candles used by a large sample of families BVery well: the candle sellers of Paris gave him their sales records CPoorly: he offers only his own belief, with no count or record DPoorly: he says that most families burn no candles at all

10. Question 10 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Franklin's total of 96,075,000 livres assumes 100,000 families. Keeping his other numbers the same, what would the saving be if only 50,000 families burned candles this way?

    A96,075,000 livres B192,150,000 livres C64,050,000 livres D48,037,500 livres

11. Question 11 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Passage 3, paragraph 1: Franklin imagines readers saying that people are "obstinately attached to old customs." How does he answer this counterclaim?

    AWith a survey showing that most Parisians would like to rise earlier BBy trusting sensible people to change and forcing the rest by rules CBy agreeing that his discovery is of little use and giving up the plan DBy showing that the old customs of Paris had already started to change

12. Question 12 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Franklin predicts, "Oblige a man to rise at four in the morning, and it is more than probable he will go willingly to bed at eight in the evening." Which is the best evaluation of this reasoning?

    AFully sound: he gives the results of a test in which men woke at four BUnsound: he says that people who rise early never feel tired at night CNot an argument at all, since it contains no claim about the future DPartly sound: early risers get sleepy early, but he assumes they obey

13. Question 13 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Franklin adds that "much may be saved in the other" half of the year, "though the days are shorter." How well is this claim supported?

    AIt is not sufficiently supported: he gives no numbers for the other half BIt is well supported by the table in Passage 2, which covers the full year CIt is supported by the regulations, which list the savings for each month DIt is proved by the claim that candles will become cheaper next winter

14. Question 14 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    In Passage 4, which piece of evidence is not relevant to the claim that the school should donate lost-and-found items?

    AThe count of 146 items in the bin last Friday BThe shelter's report that it gives out about 40 coats a week CThe office's report that only 9 items were claimed in October DThe news that the school won last year's recycling award

15. Question 15 of 20 · Short Answer

    Trace the argument in Passage 4. Write the main claim, the three reasons, and one piece of evidence for each reason.

    Show model answer

16. Question 16 of 20 · Short Answer

    Passage 4, paragraph 3: "My friend Ava lost a jacket in September and never even went to look for it. Students at our school just do not care about their things." Evaluate this evidence and what the writer concludes from it.

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17. Question 17 of 20 · Short Answer

    Passage 4, paragraph 5, says that "If an item has been in the bin for a week, its owner has given up on it." Is this reasoning sound? Use the writer's own evidence from paragraph 3 in your answer.

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18. Question 18 of 20 · Short Answer

    In Passage 3, Franklin proposes four regulations, from a tax on shutters to cannon fired in every street. Are the regulations evidence for his claim? Explain what they add to the argument, and what they show about his purpose.

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19. Question 19 of 20 · Short Answer

    Franklin's calculation covers only "the six months between the 20th of March and the 20th of September." Using Passage 1 as well as Passage 2, explain why he chooses these months, and whether the choice makes his estimate stronger or weaker.

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20. Question 20 of 20 · Short Answer

    Evaluate Franklin's argument as a whole (Passages 1-3). Is the reasoning sound, and is the evidence relevant and sufficient to support his claim that Paris could save "An immense sum"? Write a paragraph with at least three pieces of evidence.

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These standards connect to RI.7.8: prerequisites to review first, parallel standards at the same level, and next steps that build on it.

Standard text: Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy. © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.