Overview

Lesson Procedure

65-75 minutes of class time across 5 phases.

1. Warm-Up10 minutes
2. Direct Instruction20 minutes
3. Guided Practice15 minutes
4. Independent Practice15-20 minutes
5. Closure5-10 minutes

1. Warm-Up10 minutes

   Warm-Up Prompt

   "Two statements describe the same winter. (1) 'The state of the hospitals was disgraceful.' (2) 'In December 1854, 1,725 soldiers in an army of about 32,800 died of disease.' Which one persuades you more? Which one would you trust more? What would you need to know before you relied on either?"

   Students usually find the words more moving and the number more trustworthy, until someone asks where the number came from, who counted and what "died of disease" included. Write the lesson question on the board: What killed most British soldiers in the war in the East in 1854-1856, and which reform does the evidence best support? Tell students that RI.11-12.7 asks them to answer questions like this one by integrating sources in several formats (a newspaper letter, a biography, a table of numbers and two charts) and by evaluating what each source can and cannot show.

2. Direct Instruction20 minutes

   Part 1: Integrate, then evaluate. To integrate sources is to combine what they show into one answer, noticing where they agree, where one fills a gap in another, and where they conflict. To evaluate a source is to judge how far it can be trusted for this question: who made it, when, for what purpose, what it counts or describes, and what it leaves out. A source can be strong for one question and weak for another.

   Questions to ask of each format

   Format	What it does well	Questions to ask before relying on it
   Words (report, letter, biography)	Describes conditions, causes and motives; gives testimony	Who wrote it, when, for whom, and why? Is the writer an eyewitness?
   Numbers (table)	Counts and compares across months and causes	What is counted, and out of what total? Who collected it, and how?
   Visual (chart, diagram)	Shows patterns and size at a glance	What does length or area stand for? What scale? What is left out?
   All together	Each covers another's gaps	Do the sources agree? If not, which difference in method explains it?

   Part 2: The sources. In 1854 Britain and France joined the Ottoman Empire in its war against Russia; the British army fought in the Crimea, on the Black Sea, and sent its sick and wounded to hospitals at Scutari, across the water from Constantinople. Florence Nightingale arrived at Scutari with a party of nurses in November 1854. Read Passage 1, a letter printed in The Times of London, and Passage 2, from the 1913 biography of Nightingale by Sir Edward Cook, who drew on her papers and on official reports. Then study the table, Nightingale's own monthly figures, and Diagram 1, a chart drawn from them for this page. Model the worked examples.

   It is with feelings of surprise and anger that the public will learn that no sufficient preparations have been made for the proper care of the wounded. Not only are there not sufficient surgeons--that, it might be urged, was unavoidable; not only are there no dressers and nurses--that might be a defect of system for which no one is to blame; but what will be said when it is known that there is not even linen to make bandages for the wounded? The greatest commiseration prevails for the sufferings of the unhappy inmates of Scutari, and every family is giving sheets and old garments to supply their wants. But why could not this clearly foreseen want have been supplied? Can it be said that the Battle of the Alma has been an event to take the world by surprise? Has not the expedition to the Crimea been the talk of the last four months? And when the Turks gave up to our use the vast barracks to form a hospital and depot, was it not on the ground that the loss of the English troops was sure to be considerable when engaged in so dangerous an enterprise? And yet, after the troops have been six months in the country, there is no preparation for the commonest surgical operations! Not only are the men kept, in some cases, for a week without the hand of a medical man coming near their wounds; not only are they left to expire in agony, unheeded and shaken off, though catching desperately at the surgeon whenever he makes his rounds through the fetid ship; but now, when they are placed in the spacious building, where we were led to believe that everything was ready which could ease their pain or facilitate their recovery, it is found that the commonest appliances of a workhouse sick-ward are wanting, and that the men must die through the medical staff of the British army having forgotten that old rags are necessary for the dressing of wounds. If Parliament were sitting, some notice would probably be taken of these facts, which are notorious and have excited much concern; as it is, it rests with the Government to make inquiries into the conduct of those who have so greatly neglected their duty.

   [...] The ships which brought the sick and wounded from the Crimea were painfully ill-equipped. The voyage from Balaclava to Scutari usually took eight days and a half. During the first four months of the war, there died on a voyage, no longer than from Tynemouth to London, 74 out of every 1000 embarked. The landing arrangements added to the men's sufferings. To an unpractised eye the buildings used as hospitals at Scutari were imposing and convenient; and this fact accounts for some of the rose-coloured descriptions by which persons in high places were for a time misled. Even the Principal Medical Officer on the spot was naïvely content with whitewash as a preparation to fit the Barrack for use as a hospital. In fact, however, the buildings were pest-houses. Underneath the great structures "were sewers of the worst possible construction, loaded with filth, mere cesspools, in fact, through which the wind blew sewer air up the pipes of numerous open privies into the corridors and wards where the sick were lying."[90] There was also frightful overcrowding. For many months the space for each patient was one-fourth of what it ought to have been. And there was no proper ventilation. "It is impossible," Miss Nightingale told the Royal Commission of 1857, "to describe the state of the atmosphere of the Barrack Hospital at night. I have been well acquainted with the dwellings of the worst parts of most of the great cities in Europe, but have never been in any atmosphere which I could compare with it." Lastly, hospital comforts, and even many hospital necessaries, were deficient.[91] The supply of bedsteads was inadequate. The commonest utensils, for decency as well as for comfort, were lacking. The sheets, said Miss Nightingale, "were of canvas, and so coarse that the wounded men begged to be left in their blankets. It was indeed impossible to put men in such a state of emaciation into those sheets. There was no bedroom furniture of any kind, and only empty beer or wine bottles for candlesticks." Necessary surgical and medical appliances were often either wanting or not forthcoming. There was no machinery, until Miss Nightingale came, for providing any hospital delicacies. The result of this state of things upon patients arriving after a painful voyage in an extreme state of weakness and emaciation, from wounds, from frost-bite, from dysentery, may be imagined, and it is no wonder that cholera and typhus were rife. In February 1855 the mortality per cent of the cases treated was forty-two. No words are necessary to emphasize so terrible a figure.

   Deaths in the British army in the East, by month and cause, April 1854 to March 1856 (real figures: Florence Nightingale's 1858 tables, as transcribed in the HistData "Nightingale" data set). The last column is the annual death rate from disease per 1,000 soldiers: deaths x 12 x 1,000 / average strength.

   Month	Average strength of the army	Deaths from disease	Deaths from wounds	Deaths from other causes	Disease rate per 1,000 per year
   Apr 1854	8,571	1	0	5	1.4
   May 1854	23,333	12	0	9	6.2
   Jun 1854	28,333	11	0	6	4.7
   Jul 1854	28,722	359	0	23	150.0
   Aug 1854	30,246	828	1	30	328.5
   Sep 1854	30,290	788	81	70	312.2
   Oct 1854	30,643	503	132	128	197.0
   Nov 1854	29,736	844	287	106	340.6
   Dec 1854	32,779	1,725	114	131	631.5
   Jan 1855	32,393	2,761	83	324	1022.8
   Feb 1855	30,919	2,120	42	361	822.8
   Mar 1855	30,107	1,205	32	172	480.3
   Apr 1855	32,252	477	48	57	177.5
   May 1855	35,473	508	49	37	171.8
   Jun 1855	38,863	802	209	31	247.6
   Jul 1855	42,647	382	134	33	107.5
   Aug 1855	44,614	483	164	25	129.9
   Sep 1855	47,751	189	276	20	47.5
   Oct 1855	46,852	128	53	18	32.8
   Nov 1855	37,853	178	33	32	56.4
   Dec 1855	43,217	91	18	28	25.3
   Jan 1856	44,212	42	2	48	11.4
   Feb 1856	43,485	24	0	19	6.6
   Mar 1856	46,140	15	0	35	3.9

   • Integrate words and numbers

     Passage 1, dated September 30, 1854, is about the wounded: there is "not even linen to make bandages for the wounded." The table's row for September 1854 shows 81 deaths from wounds and 788 from disease.

     Result: 788/81 is about 9.7. The letter is accurate about neglect, but the numbers add what it misses: even in the month of the Battle of the Alma, disease killed almost ten times as many soldiers as wounds did. Together the sources point toward sickness, not surgery, as the main problem.

   • Evaluate a statistic: out of what?

     Passage 2 says "In February 1855 the mortality per cent of the cases treated was forty-two." The table's February 1855 row shows 2,120 + 42 + 361 = 2,523 deaths in an army of 30,919.

     Result: 2,523/30,919 is about 8.2 percent of the whole army in one month. The two figures do not conflict: 42 percent is out of the patients treated in the hospital, and 8.2 percent is out of every soldier. Always ask what a percentage is "of."

   • Read the visual

     In Diagram 1, the red segment (wounds) is tallest in November 1854, the month of the Battle of Inkerman: 287 deaths. The blue segment (disease) for the same month is 844.

     Result: The chart makes the comparison visible at once: even in the worst month for wounds, disease was about three times as deadly (844/287 is about 2.9). A reader of Passage 1 alone would never see this.

   • Evaluate a rate: why "per year"?

     The table's last column turns one month's deaths into an annual rate per 1,000 soldiers. For December 1854: 1,725 x 12 x 1,000 / 32,779.

     Result: The result is about 631.5 per 1,000 per year, which means that at December's pace almost two soldiers in three would die within a year. Annual rates let months with different army sizes be compared fairly; they are a way of scaling a month, not a prediction.

   • Integrate everything to answer the question

     Over all 24 months, the table records 14,476 deaths from disease out of 17,982 deaths from all causes. Passage 2 describes sewers "loaded with filth," overcrowding and "no proper ventilation."

     Result: 14,476/17,982 is about 80.5 percent. The numbers show that disease, not battle, killed about four soldiers in five; the words suggest why (conditions that spread disease). A strong answer to the lesson question needs both, and it names what neither shows (for example, how many of the dead had passed through Scutari).

3. Guided Practice15 minutes

   Pairs read Passage 3 and test one claim against the table: Cook's statement that "the death-rate in the hospitals fell, as the result of their reforms, with remarkable rapidity," and Nightingale's judgment that the Sanitary Commission "saved the British Army."

   [...] When the Government was reconstituted after the fall of Lord Aberdeen, with Lord Panmure as Secretary for War, this lesson was taken faithfully to heart, and a Commission of Three--Dr. John Sutherland, Dr. Hector Gavin, and Mr. Robert Rawlinson, C.E.--was sent out to the East with full executive powers. They received their instructions on February 19, 1855, and within three days they sailed. "The tone of the instructions," says Kinglake, "is peculiar, and such as to make one believe that they owed much to feminine impulsion. The diction of the orders is such that, in housekeeper's language, it may be said to have 'bustled the servants.'" The credit for the bustling at home belongs, however, to Lord Shaftesbury, who had pressed the appointment of the Commissioners upon Lord Panmure, and who was employed to draft their instructions.[131] The duties of these Sanitary Commissioners were laid down with a minuteness of detail which Miss Nightingale herself could not have excelled; and they were then told that "the utmost expedition must be used in the execution of all that is necessary at the place of your destination. It is important that you be deeply impressed with the necessity of not resting content with an order, but that you see instantly, by yourselves or your agents, to the commencement of the work and to its superintendence day by day until it is finished."[132] It is from the Report of the Sanitary Commissioners that I drew many of the statements about the condition of the hospitals given in an earlier chapter. They set about the work of sanitary engineering with great dispatch, and the death-rate in the hospitals fell, as the result of their reforms, with remarkable rapidity.[133] "The sanitary conditions of the hospitals of Scutari," Miss Nightingale told the Royal Commission of 1857, "were inferior in point of crowding, ventilation, drainage, and cleanliness, up to the middle of March 1855, to any civil hospital, or to the poorest homes of the worst parts of the civil population of any large town that I have ever seen. After the sanitary works undertaken at that date were executed (June), I know no buildings in the world which I could compare with them in these points, the original defects of construction of course excepted." It was this Commission, as Miss Nightingale said afterwards to Lord Shaftesbury, that "saved the British Army." [...]

   Guide the pairs with three steps. (1) Dates: when did the Commission sail, and when, by Nightingale's account, were the works begun and finished? (2) Numbers: copy the disease deaths for January to July 1855 from the table. When did the fall begin? (3) Judgment: does the table support, weaken or leave open the claim that the Commission caused the fall? What else would you need? Pairs should find that disease deaths fell from 2,761 in January to 2,120 in February and 1,205 in March, so the decline began before the Commission's works, which Nightingale dates from "the middle of March" to June; that deaths rose again to 802 in June; and that the table covers the whole army in the East, not only the hospitals Passage 3 describes. A careful conclusion is that the evidence fits the claim in part but does not prove it, and that a researcher would want hospital figures before and after the works.

4. Independent Practice15-20 minutes

   Students read Passages 4 and 5 and study Diagram 2, a rose diagram in the style of the ones Nightingale published in 1858, drawn for this page from the table. Then they answer the quiz on their own with the table and both diagrams open. Calculators are allowed.

   [...] She had "identified herself," as we have heard, "with the heroic dead," and she knew that many of her "children," as she called them, had died, not of necessity, but from neglect. "No one," she wrote,[223] "can feel for the Army as I do. These people who talk to us have all fed their children on the fat of the land and dressed them in velvet and silk, while we have been away. I have had to see my children dressed in a dirty blanket and an old pair of regimental trousers, and to see them fed on raw salt meat, and nine thousand of my children are lying, from causes which might have been prevented, in their forgotten graves. But I can never forget. People must have seen that long, long dreadful winter to know what it was." Others might know the facts, but she felt them. The strength of her character and powers lay, however, in the combination of intense feeling with intellectual grasp. She not only felt the neglect which had sacrificed her children's lives, but she tabulated the causes. The facts which had come under her eye, the figures in which she summarized and analysed them, filled her with a passion of resentment. During her residence in the Eastern hospitals she had seen 4600 soldiers die. And as she studied the figures, the conclusion was irresistibly borne in upon her that the greater number need not have died at all. Many of the diseases to which they had succumbed were induced, and others were aggravated, in the hospitals themselves. Her personal observation told her that it was so; statistical inquiry proved it. "We had," she pointed out, "during the first seven months of the Crimean campaign, a mortality among the troops at the rate of 60 per cent per annum from disease alone, a rate of mortality which exceeds that of the Great Plague in London, and a higher ratio than the mortality in cholera to the attacks." By a series of reforms, largely the result of Miss Nightingale's own untiring efforts and vehement expostulations, this terrible rate of mortality was reduced. "We had, during the last six months of the war, a mortality among our sick not much more than among our healthy guards at home, and a mortality among our troops, in the last five months, two-thirds only of what it is among our troops at home." It was obvious from this comparison that the mortality during the first period was largely preventable. [...]

   She had worked indefatigably, and through many channels, and she continued so to work, in order to focus and stimulate public opinion in the sense of Lord Ebrington's Resolutions. By the end of 1857 the Sub-Commissions on Army Medical Reform were making good progress, and the Report of the Royal Commission was about to be published. She devised an effective means of forcing its salient feature upon the attention of every person most concerned in the evils or most influential towards securing the necessary remedies. I have referred already (p. 352) to her diagrams illustrative of the mortality in the British Army. As finally prepared with Dr. Farr's assistance, they showed most effectively at a glance, by means of shaded or coloured squares, circles and wedges, (1) the deaths due to preventable causes in the Hospitals during the Crimean War, and (2) the rate of mortality in the British Army at home: "our soldiers enlist," as she put it, "to Death in the Barracks." She now wrote a memorandum, explaining the diagrams and pointing their moral, and had 2000 copies printed. This anonymous publication--entitled Mortality of the British Army--is called in her correspondence Coxcombs, primarily from the shape and colours of her diagrams. She had proposed, and Mr. Herbert agreed, that the memorandum and diagrams should be included as an appendix in his Report, in order that her pamphlet might appear as "Reprinted from the Report of the Royal Commission," and thus be given the greater authority. So soon as the Report was issued, she distributed her Coxcombs to the Queen and other members of the Royal Family, to Ministers, to leading members of both Houses of Parliament, and to Medical and Commanding Officers throughout the country, in India and in the colonies. She had a few copies of the diagrams glazed and framed, and three of these she sent to the War Office, the Horse Guards, and the Army Medical Department. I do not know whether these Departments hung up the present. "It is our flank march upon the enemy," she wrote in sending an early copy to Sir John McNeill, "and we might give it the old name of God's Revenge upon Murder."

5. Closure5-10 minutes

   Exit ticket: "Answer the lesson question in two sentences. Name one source in words and one in numbers or images that you relied on, and one limit of either." Sort the tickets into "one source only," "several sources, not weighed" and "integrated and evaluated" to plan the next lesson.

   Teacher note. Cook's biography (1913) admires Nightingale, and students should weigh that. Passages 2, 3, 4 and 6 keep Cook's footnote numbers in brackets exactly as printed. The table's figures are Nightingale's own, from her 1858 report to the government; they are real, and no numbers on this page are invented. Diagrams 1 and 2 are new drawings of those figures, made for this page.

   Homework passage. Passage 6 turns from the war to the army's barracks in England in peacetime. Students use it with the table and the diagrams for the homework.

   [...] If the medical service in the field were deficient, if the lessons of sanitary science were neglected in war hospitals, it was probable, she perceived, that there were like defects at home. She put her thesis to the test of figures, and was appalled at the verification which they supplied. The idea had first occurred to her on meeting Dr. Farr, the statistician in the Registrar-General's office, at dinner with her friends Colonel and Mrs. Tulloch. Dr. Farr had talked of mortality tables in civil life, and Miss Nightingale resolved to compare them with the death-rate in British barracks. She found that in the Army, from the age of twenty to thirty-five, the mortality was nearly double that which it was in civil life. This was the case even in the Guards, who yet were select lives, the pick of the recruits. "With our present amount of sanitary knowledge," she wrote to Sir John McNeill (March 1, 1857), "it is as criminal to have a mortality of 17, 19, and 20 per 1000 in the Line, Artillery, and Guards in England, when that of Civil life is only 11 per 1000, as it would be to take 1100 men per annum out upon Salisbury Plain and shoot them--no body of men being so much under control, none so dependent upon their employers for health, life, and morality as the Army." And again (March 28): "This disgraceful state of our Chatham Hospitals, which I have been visiting lately,[225] is only one more symptom of a system which, in the Crimea, put to death 16,000 men--the finest experiment modern history has seen upon a large scale, viz. as to what given number may be put to death at will by the sole agency of bad food and bad air." [...]

Differentiation Strategies

Assessment Guidance

1. Question 1 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Use the table. What was the annual death rate from all causes in January 1855, per 1,000 soldiers?

   AAbout 97.8 per 1,000 BAbout 1,173.6 per 1,000 CAbout 1,022.8 per 1,000 soldiers DAbout 85.2 per 1,000

2. Question 2 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Passage 4 quotes Nightingale: "during the first seven months of the Crimean campaign, a mortality among the troops at the rate of 60 per cent per annum from disease alone." Test it with the table for September 1854 through March 1855: add the deaths from disease, divide by 7, multiply by 12, and divide by the average strength for those months (about 30,981). What rate does the table give?

   AAbout 55 percent per year BAbout 5 percent per year CAbout 32 percent in a year DAbout 80 percent per year

3. Question 3 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Suppose a calculation from the table for those seven months does not exactly match Nightingale's 60 percent. What is the most reasonable evaluation?

   AThe table proves that Nightingale invented her figure of 60 percent BHer months or army count may differ: close, but not reproduced CThe table counts only deaths from wounds, so it cannot be compared DThe two figures are the same, since both round to half the army

4. Question 4 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Nightingale also claims that "during the last six months of the war," deaths "among our sick" were "not much more than among our healthy guards at home." What evidence would you need to test this claim that the table does not contain?

   ADeaths from wounds and from other causes for each month of the war BThe strength of the army in the East for every month CHospital deaths among the sick, and the Guards' home rate DA copy of the Times letter printed in October 1854

5. Question 5 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   According to Passage 5, what was the main purpose of the "Coxcombs" diagrams?

   ATo keep a record of the deaths for the army's own files BTo teach nurses how to keep hospital statistics CTo give the Royal Family colorful pictures of the war DTo put the finding before those with power to reform

6. Question 6 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Why did Nightingale want her pamphlet to appear as "Reprinted from the Report of the Royal Commission"?

   ATo give it "the greater authority" of an official report BBecause the Commission itself had drawn the diagrams CTo hide the fact that Dr. Farr had helped her make them DBecause every army pamphlet had to carry that line by law

7. Question 7 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   In Diagram 2, wedge area is proportional to the rate. The table gives a disease rate of 631.5 for December 1854 and 171.8 for May 1855. How many times greater was the December rate?

   AAbout 1.9 times BAbout 459.7 times CAbout 3.7 times DAbout 0.27 times

8. Question 8 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Diagram 2 draws both years at the same scale. What does this let a reader see at once that the table shows less directly?

   AThe exact number of deaths in each month of the war BHow much lower the second year's rates were CWhich soldiers died in hospital and which in camp DThe strength of the army in the East in each month

9. Question 9 of 20 · Multiple Choice

   Which is a real limitation of the rose diagrams in Diagram 2 as evidence?

   AThey can show only one cause of death at a time BThey are drawn from invented numbers, not real ones CThey show only the second year of the war and not the first DArea is hard to judge by eye; exact values need the table

10. Question 10 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Passage 4 says that in the Eastern hospitals Nightingale "had seen 4600 soldiers die," while the table records 17,982 deaths from all causes. Why is this not a contradiction?

    AShe saw 4,600 in hospitals; the table counts the whole army BThe table counts only deaths from wounds, not from disease CThe figure 4,600 is a misprint for 17,982 in Cook's book DThe table counts soldiers who were sick, not soldiers who died

11. Question 11 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    For the question "Which cause killed the most soldiers?", which source on this page gives the most direct evidence?

    APassage 1, the letter printed in The Times BPassage 5, on the Coxcombs diagrams CThe monthly table of deaths by cause DPassage 3, on the Sanitary Commission

12. Question 12 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    For the question "How did Nightingale's evidence reach the people who made decisions?", which source is most useful?

    AThe monthly table of deaths by cause BPassage 5, on the Coxcombs diagrams CDiagram 1, the stacked bar chart DPassage 2, on the hospitals at Scutari

13. Question 13 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    Passage 4 says the rate was reduced "By a series of reforms, largely the result of Miss Nightingale's own untiring efforts and vehement expostulations." How should a researcher treat this sentence?

    AAs a proven fact, because Cook worked directly from her own papers BAs a figure that can be read straight from the table CAs Nightingale's own words, quoted by her biographer DA biographer's admiring judgment, to test against other evidence

14. Question 14 of 20 · Multiple Choice

    The table records 11,157 deaths from disease from April 1854 to March 1855 and 3,319 from April 1855 to March 1856. The second year's total was about what percent of the first year's?

    AAbout 30 percent BAbout 23 percent CAbout 70 percent DAbout 336 percent

15. Question 15 of 20 · Short Answer

    Answer the lesson question (What killed most British soldiers in the war in the East in 1854-1856, and which reform does the evidence best support?) in 4-6 sentences. Use the table, Diagram 2 and Passage 4, and say what each contributes.

    Show model answer

16. Question 16 of 20 · Short Answer

    Evaluate Diagram 2 as a piece of persuasion. Explain one way the rose design helps Nightingale's argument and one way it could mislead a reader.

    Show model answer

17. Question 17 of 20 · Short Answer

    Nightingale claims that "in the last five months" of the war, the army's death rate was "two-thirds only of what it is among our troops at home." Her letter in Passage 6 puts the home rates at 17 to 20 per 1,000. Test the claim with the table for November 1855 to March 1856, and explain your result.

    Show model answer

18. Question 18 of 20 · Short Answer

    Passage 5 says the diagrams showed their point "most effectively at a glance" and were sent "to Ministers, to leading members of both Houses of Parliament, and to Medical and Commanding Officers." Why would a visual format suit this audience better than the table? What would that audience lose?

    Show model answer

19. Question 19 of 20 · Short Answer

    Solve the problem. You advise the Royal Commission of 1857 and may recommend only one reform first. State it and support it with evidence from at least two formats on this page, then name the weakest point in your evidence.

    Show model answer

20. Question 20 of 20 · Short Answer

    Which source on this page would you trust least for answering the lesson question, and why? Name what another source adds to make up for its weakness.

    Show model answer

These standards connect to RI.11-12.7: prerequisites to review first, parallel standards at the same level, and next steps that build on it.

Standard text: Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy. © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.